 Building
Bridges for Student Success
Engaging Kodiak's Students and Communities Through
Place-Based Educational Practices
Chapter II - Literature
Review
Every community has a history and a language
that is connected to that particular place. The Sugpiaq have inhabited Kodiak
Island for over 7,000 years. To date, they and their modern day descendents
are known to be the most successful inhabitants of this area. The language
of the Sugpiaq, Sugcestun, is a reflection of the surrounding environment.
Much can be learned about the ocean, the animals, and skies as one learns
the language. Their living culture is the adaptation to living well in this
place
with the available resources. The Sugpiaq, as their nairte reflects (suk
refers to "person," —piat refers to "real"), are the "real
people" of the Kodiak Island region. Those who refer to themselves as
members of this indigenous family are not simply born into it, but have learned
how to live a life that is appropriate for surviving and living well in.
this place. Even a non-indigenous person may be adopted into this group if
they
have learned to live in the Sugpiaq way, respectful of themselves, others,
and the environment, which sustains them, living a life that reflects the
values of the people.
Ideally, place-based educational practices in the Kodiak
region would also
reflect the values of the Sugpiaq people. After all, much can be learned
from the ones successful in living here of millennia. Perhaps, in order
to improve
our local educational system, we need to look toward the oldest education
of this place, that of the Sugpiaq. We have a lot to learn from those successful
in living here for thousands of years. Elders at home tell us to learn
that which is good from others, but always to keep what is good from our own.
Successful
cultures are those that adapt to changes in the environment and utilize
what
is good from others, while staying grounded with what is necessary for
life in their homeland. Not everything and every idea that is brought to our
islands'
communities are good for them. We must utilize the discerning eyes of the
Elders of this
place in making decisions and request guidance regarding political, economic
and educational issues. We can teach more effectively by modeling their
pedagogy of place and making use of our rich environment as a teaching tool.
While
trying to understand our current circumstances, it is necessary to reflect
upon the past. The following includes an overview of some of the
reform efforts
that have occurred during the past century that have led our educational
system to the point at which it is today. Next, A discussion regarding
a student's
motivation to learn, as well, as the role of and individual's culture
will take place. An overview of the value of place-based education will
be shown as a valid option in preparing our children for life, followed
by specific
examples of place-based activities that have been adapted for and implemented
in the Kodiak schools. These are specific examples of what a Kodiak-based
education may look like.
A Brief History of School Reform
School reform is an interesting subject. When
you think about it our educational
system has been in reform since its beginnings. However, it has been
said that if
Rip Van Winkle woke up today, the only thing he would recognize would
be schools. Are we really doing anything differently? Have we improved
test
scores? Are
the students we are serving any better off than before the last great
reform? Who is the reform geared toward? Have minority groups benefited
from any
of the reforms?
J. Abner Peddiwell's book, The Saber-Tooth Curriculum takes
the reader to Mexico where Raymond Wayne encounters an old college professor
from his "university days.' As the fictional story progresses,
the Professor
of Education
discusses the "history" of education beginning in the Paleolithic
time period. The education of the "cavemen" is depicted just as
we see it today, simply using words and phrases referring to life
during the
Stone Age. Education is depicted as a grand idea of an individual
that is soon shared with others surrounding him. Later, others
begin to
alter the
original
plan in order to accommodate the needs of a few. Factions are built
both at the liberal and conservative ends of change, as some see
no need for
change while others are progressive. Politicians get their hands
on the "newly"
developed
curriculum and demand there is concessions, therefore compromising
the learning of the tribal people.
It is disheartening to this young,
energetic teacher in the early
years of what is hoped to be a long and fulfilling career as
an elementary teacher to know that the copyright of this text was
1939! Realizing
that discontent
of
our public schools has been in existence since the beginning
of schools in
America, I took it for granted that I was in the generation of
people who would react with energy and competence and be a part
of the change
that
must occur.
To know that the author of The Saber-Tooth Curriculum probably
thought the same of himself and ended up writing such a satire
on education
is depressing!
I keep searching for a reason that the current
reform or restructuring movements are different than those
of the Progressive Education
Movement, or the actions
taken in the post-Sputnik era that demanded changes in the
curriculum and instruction in American schools. History, and Peddiwell for
that matter,
tells me that
we will simply repeat the mistakes of the past and move on
to another topic of reform. The one area that I see as being a bit
different
this time around
is the number and various kinds of people directly involved
in change. The demands and contributions from the business world
to that of
public education
may not have occurred in the past to the extent that we see
it today. Parent groups are implementing programs nationwide to
involve and
engage parents
in the changes. State legislatures are passing laws that demand
their schools to change, while others are allowing state and
school district
funds to
begin charter schools statewide.
Timothy W. Young begins his
discussion about education in his book, Public alternative education:
Options and choice for
today's school,
by clearly
pointing out that "alternatives in American education are
as old as the country itself" (1990, p. 3). The history of education
and
the
alternatives
that have been offered to American youth throughout time
are interesting to review, beginning with the colonist's approach
to education,
which included such "options" as year round grammar schools
for the middle
and
upper class boys and charity schools for the minority and
poor of the communities. Two opposing points of view have stood
out over
time as
in the case of
Horace Mann and his "unqualified support for the common school,"
and Ralph Waldo Emerson's reluctance to "buy into" the "needless
conformity" of the public school
"at
the expense of personal growth" (p.5). Understanding that
these two points of view from the mid-1840's are major points
of
debate about
public education
to this day helps to put this discussion into a historical
perspective.
As the late 1800's and early 1900's approached,
the Progressive Education Movement created a number of
model schools that
attempted to undo the "wrongs" in American education (Young,
1990). Community-based
learning and interdisciplinary approach were encouraged.
None of these schools proved to be exactly what everybody
wanted,
thus,
many were
not
continued.
Young continued to explore the changes in American education
throughout the mid-1900's. The author clearly states the
reasons for change,
including demands from the political arena to exceed the
Russians in technological
sciences in the 50's and 60's, and then, pressures from
such philosophers as the ideological "romantic crisis" in the
60's and 70's.
As the early 1980's were upon them, people involved in
the world of education and businesses continued the debate originally
begun
by Mann
and Emerson.
Young makes a clear case the alternatives in
public education are necessary if we are to educate at all of America's
youth. He points
out that
not one single of the options given to our nation's youth
throughout history
provided everything desired of education for everybody.
The failure of American secondary schools, revealed by
the 25%
nationwide
dropout rate,
demands that
something change.
Charter schools are on the rise in our
nation as an additional option for elementary and secondary public education.
The State of Alaska
passed the
Charter School
Act in 1995 and is currently supporting 17 such schools.
Many of the positive observations that Young recorded
would not
be enough
for some
communities,
including politicians, parents and educators, to "buy
into" the idea of alternative education. Charter
schools, however,
were
created to empower parents, communities and educators
to a greater extent
by providing
options
within the public school system.
The issue of teaching
all of America's youth was the prevailing theme in
Asa Hilliard's "Do We Have the
Will to Educate
All Children? (1991)." Hilliard believes that
the overwhelming amount of "bureaucracy"
and "structured ideology" in our society
today causes educators, and society as a whole, "to
doubt the fundamental human potential of the masses
of our
children." In his article he states that, "Our
faith in the students and
in ourselves is often so low that our approach to the
teaching task
lacks the vitality
so typical of natural human teaching/learning encounters"
(p. 33). With this philosophy, Hilliard invites his
readers to
consider that
perhaps
the restructuring of schools that needs to take place
has nothing to do
with
length of school day or getting rid of the existing
physical facilities.
Professor
Hilliard questions existing reform/restructuring efforts
as to whether or not they will "lead us to the
philosophy, the
thought,
the affect,
the energy,
and the results of the most productive pedagogy in
the field..." (p. 33).
Are we providing students with a reason to learn?
The philosophy that all students
can learn and perform at higher levels than that which many educators teach
to, regardless of gender, race, and socioeconomic
background, is reinforced by Rene Baillageon's and Margaret Donaldson's
work with infant's cognitive abilities. Their separate research efforts,
as outlined in Hilliard's article, may lead to the rewriting of Piaget's "Stages
of Cognitive Development," which has dominated and restricted our
approaches to teaching children. Many of America's educators have only
been teaching
to the level (or even below the level) that Piaget established through
his own research. As Professor Hilliard states: "Our current ceiling
for students is really much closer to where the floor ought to be."
James
A. Banks in his article "The Canon Debate, Knowledge Construction,
and Multicultural Education" (1993), gives another perspective that
can be related to why some students are not receiving the education they
deserve.
He explains his views in terms of the types of knowledge that are transferred
to American students. Banks states: "Students must become critical
consumers of knowledge as well as knowledge producers if they are to acquire
the understandings
and skills needed to function in the complex and diverse world of tomorrow" (p.
12). The Western traditional knowledge that is typically examined through
textbooks and lessons dashes with many children's own cultural beliefs.
A growing
number of students are failing in our public schools, according to Banks,
because "...cultural
knowledge within their community conflicts with school knowledge, norms,
and expectations."
Both authors suggest in their separate articles
that the classroom teacher is able to make changes in his or her approach
in instruction that may
alleviate the dangers of both teaching to or below mediocre levels of
excellence and
teaching from one perspective. Banks and Hilliard suggest changes in
the existing system at the level of theory, approach, and practice of the classroom
teacher.
The issues of choice and learning were examined by Kohl through
a series of personal examples and an interpretation thereof in I Won't
Learn From
You (1991). He explained what he termed "not-learning" by comparing
it to what we, as educators, understand to be failure. Kohl is adamant
that there is a major difference. He supports this idea by saying "...no
failure is possible since there has been no attempt to learn" (p.
43). Kohl characterizes failure as the"... frustrated will to know," and
willed not-learning as "...a conscious and chosen refusal to assent
to learn." This
non-conforming method, when recognized by others, may actually reveal
a great amount of intelligence. It can even be seen as "...a healthy
response," as
many social non-learners have earned leadership positions in our society,
rebelling against such things as racism, sexism and a variety of other
forms of bias.
Non-learning can also result in a "dysfunctional response." This
creates, in the imaginations of the observers, a non-conforming monster:
one that, perhaps, should be eliminated from our society.
"David" came to mind as I read Kohl's book, also. He was a student
in my fifth grade class during the 93-94 school year. Taking Kohl's
advice to "think. . .about roads people choose to not-travel and how those
choices define character and influence destiny," I see David's reactions
to class work as his way of simply doing the minimum in order to
get him to the point of dropping out. David often spoke of quitting school
so that he
could be a fisherman and subsistence hunter. He was an awesome storyteller
and fully comprehended the outdoor adventure stories that he read
avidly. When someone spoke about something he was interested in, no one in
the room listened
more intently than David did. However, he would not conform to my
behavior or academic expectations, or those of his previous teachers. David
had no need
for traditional "book learning." He became rebellious,
even violent. I knew that deep down David had a good heart, but he
chose to be a loner and
my worst "discipline problem."
Kohl describes many of the
behaviors that we as educators see in the context of our careers
and daily lives. If only we would choose
to
see some of
these children as something more than behavior problems and menaces
to society.
But then, those who do not choose to understand Kohl's perspective
may be in their own mode of "not-learning!"
Most people
visualize the "typical" high school drop out as drugged
out, eccentric, not normal, a loser, etc. The some of the public
may view these children, and many others in the special education
programs as being the ones "taking" funds
away from their own child's education. True, there is specific
funding available for Special Education, migrant workers, American
Natives, and low
socio-economic groups. We often over look the possibilities of
using these funds to benefit of all children. We don't often visualize
our own children
in the category of "at-risk." It appears to be someone
else's child.
I can understand, and even sympathize with those people
who believe they have children who are "normal." Many
times these same parents believe that if their child did not have
so many special needs children in their class
year after year they would not simply be normal, but perhaps gifted
and talented! Only after thorough review and study of at-risk youth
do we realize that all
children can and probably will be at-risk during some time in their
lives. Parents need to understand that all children can greatly
benefit from the restructuring
of public education and! or school wide programs.
The Role of Culture
In his biography, Chief Peter John speaks frequently of
the "Indian Way" in
contrast to the "Whiteman Way" (1986). He never states
that the white man's way is wrong, simply that it may not be
right for an Indian.
The elder stresses the need to take what is good from the Indian
Way, and that which is good from the Whiteman, blend the two
and allow both cultures to grow.
Peter John relays the message to his people, and to other Indians
and Eskimos, that there is a need not only to preserve Native
cultures in books and other
documentation, but also for those people belonging to a culture
to live it. He is discouraged by the fact that the Whiteman
has lost his culture: "The
White people got their way to understand...But then you go
back three or four hundred years and think about what their
culture
was. None of them living today
understand it. The White people, too. So the old culture is
not only lost with the Native people, it's also lost with the
White
people" (p. 58).
He does not want to see the total loss of his culture. Enough
has been lost in his eyes. It is time to "make kids understand" (p.
58).
This book can be seen as an extremely relevant tool to
be used while developing curriculum for Athabascan communities.
Any
community developing
curriculum
should be aware of the cultures represented in its schools.
For a long time American education has been criticized because
of
the limited
knowledge that
is being transferred to American students. The Western traditional
knowledge that is typically examined through textbooks and
lessons clashes with
many children's own cultural beliefs.
Professional educators
know that each child brings with them unique characteristics and abilities.
The individual child
needs to be
honored in a classroom.
Their strengths should be enhanced, their interests pursued
and their weaknesses given the chance to improve through
varied approaches
and curriculum. None
of this can be effectively done for all of our students until
our schools are restructured to eliminate the factory model
(pushing kids through
a system),
and create smaller learning environments. Then we will be
closer to accomplishing what we need to do for each individual that
comes
to
our classroom. In
this kind of atmosphere, a teacher is more likely to know
his/her students' strengths
and weaknesses and will be able to effectively teach to each
individual's needs.
Diane Ravitch, in her article "A
Culture in Common," makes a strong
case for not teaching to a particular cultural group within
our American schools. She believes that the very fact that
our nation has become so ethnically diverse
is reason enough to support her position. After all, many
practitioners are revealing their frustrations as to whose
culture they should be teaching to.
Ravitch begins her argument by stating that the "priority
must be given to teaching about the history and culture of
the United States." According
to her this "history" includes such things as a
Colombian woman celebrating after her naturalization ceremony "by
going out for sushi." The
history that Ravitch refers to also includes other things,
such as "...Coca-Cola,
IBM...Oprah...Henry Ford..." The list of our so-called "common
culture" goes on and on. Ravitch does not disagree that
our students need to be exposed to other cultures so that
they will be able to function
in a global economy, and that they should be taught all of
the basics in order to have the skills needed to work successfully
in our nation. She does disagree,
however, with the transfer of an individual's culture through
the public school system.
History, therefore the "culture" that
Ravitch refers to, are events interpreted through the eyes
of the dominant Eurocentric leaders. It is all
of those "important" people, places, and things
that someone else, perhaps, 50 or more years ago, thought
was significant. My interpretation of
the definition of culture would lead me to believe that anyone
not participating in a community may not have some of the "...socially
transmitted... behaviors and... beliefs..." that Ravitch
lists in her article. The immigrants that have joined our
country just in the last decade do not share our history.
Black Americans, denied the freedoms that White Americans
were born to, do
not share all of the same beliefs. People who live in depressed
areas of our country may not place as much, if any value
on the items that Ravitch claim
as our culture. Native Americans certainly understand the
value of our land and their freedom, but may not believe
in the "American Dream" of
the little house and a white picket fence on a paved street.
I
agree that public schools should not be the primary vehicle
(family should fill this role) to transfer an individuals
culture, but
there is no way
that schools can effectively teach children without validating
the individual's ethnicity and worldview. Certainly as new
immigrants come into our country
they should be exposed to the history of the United States
and should
understand our democratic government and their role in preserving
and participating
in it. But our country, and its people, make up the history.
We cannot ignore,
any longer, the fact that people other than our Founding
Fathers played significant roles in the history and development
of
our nation. We
must struggle to understand
the various perspectives that interpret our history. We must
struggle to understand
the various cultures that make our country unique. Without "race-bashing
and nation-bashing" we must allow the individual to
introduce us to the various points of interest of their ethnicity
and individuality. Teachers must
allow discussions and debates to broaden the ability of their
students to understand different perspectives. Teachers and
other professionals working for the benefit
of the children, must expose themselves, even study, the
cultures represented in our schools. We must, in order to
be effective teachers, validate the individual
and each history and culture that they bring to us that makes
our classrooms, and our country, unique environments. This
can be done through place-based
educational practices that utilize a child's immediate environment
and current situation as a teaching tool which engages students
through relevant,
hands on learning that can be applied and transferred to
their life beyond the school walls.
Returning to an "Old" Approach
Perhaps its time to go full circle
with the current educational reform movement. We may need to turn to the
oldest model
of education in
this land to improve
our American education system; that of our Native American
people. David W. Orr suggests in his book Earth in
Mind (1994) that until
we recognize
the myths
that our current dominant culture, therefore our educational
system, holds as truths, change will not occur before
the end of American,
or for that
matter, human society. Some of the myths of education
that he identifies, include:
- Ignorance is a solvable problem
- With enough
knowledge and technology, we can dominate our earth
-
Knowledge,
therefore human goodness,
is increasing
- We can adequately restore that
which we have destroyed
- The purpose of education
is to give
students the
means for upward
mobility and
success
- Our culture (Western civilization)
represents the pinnacle of human achievement (page 8-12)
Whose values
do these reflect? Orr suggests that Western civilization (and its
educational system) is leading
all of us to the destruction
of the
earth and suggests the following changes in the way we
think about education:
- All education is environmental.
By what is included or excluded, students are taught that they are part
of or apart
from the
natural world.
- The goal of education is not
mastery of subject matter but mastery of one's person. Subject matter
is simply
the tool.
- Knowledge carries with it the responsibility
to see that it is well used in the world.
-
We cannot say that we know something until we understand the effects of
this knowledge
on real people and their
communities.
- What is desperately needed
are (a) faculty and administrators who provide role models
of integrity, care, and thoughtfulness
and (b)
institutions capable of embodying ideals
wholly and completely in all of their operations.
-
The way in which learning occurs is as important as the content of particular
courses
(12-14).
In their
contribution
to Lessons
Taught, Lessons
Learned titled, "The
Axe Handle Academy: A Proposal for a Bioregional, Thematic
Humanities Education" (1986),
Ron and Suzanne Scollon describe a different kind of
approach to education that "would genuinely give
our children a sense of confidence and ability in facing
the unknown world they will meet upon graduation" (p.
86). They emphasize that public school curriculum has
become a "collage of
confetti" (p. 86), as we make step-by-step changes
in it, adding to it as a way of meeting the demands
of society, and subtracting from it because
of the limitations of the school day and funding. The
Scollons argue that America has spent too much energy
trying to plan for the future; a future that is unknown
to any of us. Instead, we should be preparing our students
for whatever challenges
they will be facing. They believe that "planning," as
we know it, actually restricts the possibilities and
controls the outcomes. "Preparing," on
the other hand, will enable our students to be ready "for
a future that we cannot know by giving them a solid
understanding of their place on the earth,
their place and identity in society, and the ability
to listen, observe, reflect and then communicate effectively
with others" (p. 94).
Ron and Suzanne Scollon suggest
a three-pronged curriculum that includes Bioregional
Studies, Cultural Studies
and Communication Studies.
It is concluded that the
present "hodgepodge of subjects..." be integrated
into these elements of study. The authors of the Axe
Handle Academy believe that tracking is an
unnecessary evil. All students should be equally and
skillfully prepared to be successful when they leave
high school. It is argued by the authors of this
article that all people, no matter what their profession,
should understand the impact of their own decisions
on another human being (Bioregional Studies).
All of us are members of a culture and a "solid
sense of identity is essential for a healthy adult
life as well as for productive contributions
to the society" (p. 91) (Cultural Studies). We
all understand the importance of skillful communication
in a modern technological world, no matter if one
fishes for a living or becomes a lawyer, teacher or
doctor (Communication Studies).
If we all can agree
on the above, then what is so different about the Axe
Handle Academy? The teacher becomes more
than simply
a technician as he
or she teaches
implementing this approach to learning. The teacher
is seen as a true
professional; one who is expected to deal with diverse
problems that cover an immense
body of knowledge. Putting this theory to use would
mean that teachers would be
entrusted to "exercise their judgment in arriving
at a decision which can be the basis for action" within
their classroom. The teacher would be recognized as
knowing how to learn and being able to model that to
his or
her students. "...Teachers are expected to exercise
their professional abilities as learners of new and
complex materials as they work together with
students in developing their understanding and knowledge" (p.
92).
This approach to curriculum development would enable
local communities to adapt to it easily. The Axe Handle
Academy
would allow the
teacher to implement
the
Socratic Seminar in the classroom, as well as reflective
thinking and cooperative learning. Such an approach
would lend itself
to alternative assessment
and other experientially-oriented changes in education.
If we are truly
looking
at having our students being prepared for a global
economy, where decision making, communication and understanding
will take place
cross-culturally,
then we will need to look more closely at such possibilities
as the Axe Handle Academy.
People
expect things to be different in various locations
around
the world because of climate, local culture, and the
physical environment.
A bilingual
teacher in my hometown who worked primarily with the
new immigrant population once
told me that many of her student's families struggled
with the lack of local culture visible in our schools.
They
did not expect
things
to be
the same in Kodiak. Alaska as the last United States
city they had lived in.
Our Coast Guard population thrives on learning about
the latest place that the
government has placed them. They are thrilled to learn
of local culture and participate in community wide
events that
celebrate
with local
flavor. Our
Alutiiq Museum programs have more participants from
the Coast Guard
and their dependents than from any other sector of
the community. When I
taught at
the school that serves primarily Coast Guard children,
I had more parental participation
in the outdoor education camp I held that year than
from any other group I worked with before then.
The
fact that the children we are teaching "ended up" in the place
that we are teaching tells us that each one is now
a part of that place's historical timeline. Each one of their cultures has
influenced, even in some
remote way, what we know and perhaps how we do things.
It is our job as educators to relate our student's personal life and cultural
background to what
it is we are teaching. Each student then is able
to gain a sense of pride and accomplishment through their understanding of
themselves
and the people he
or she identifies with.
Place-based Education
When we acknowledge that our nation's peoples are
struggling with a cultural identity crisis and
apply what we know
about how humans
learn
and construct
knowledge, place-based education starts to makes
sense. Young children are naturally curious with
concerns
about their
natural world (animals,
people,
the trees and flowers, the mountains, rivers
and forests). They are environmentalists. They are
filled with questions.
Place-based
educational
approaches utilize
the environment in which an individual lives
as a tool to strengthen teaching, taking a child from
the concrete
to
the abstract
through hands-on, relevant
teaching activities. In doing so, education will
allow children, and communities at large, to
celebrate their
place in the
world and then,
perhaps, allow
some to identify with and carry on its unique
culture. One thing that makes our
children unique in the world and binds them together
no matter if they are indigenous to the region
or a new immigrant,
is that they
live
in Kodiak, Alaska. It is what locals consider
to be the most
beautiful place
in the
world, even
when it's rainy and foggy. Celebrating our place
in the world can engage student learning in a
powerful way. Table of Contents
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