LEARNING STYLES

Incompatibility between American Indian/Alaska Native learning styles and standard Western educational curriculum is cited as a key barrier to academic success. To understand this incompatibility, several researchers have focused on thinking processes, active learning, and group dynamic issues.

Taking cultural differences into account reveals the shortfalls of teaching predominantly to one culture. Swisher (1991) even notes that over-generalizing group characteristics leads to "stereotypic notions about the relationship between learning style and cultural group membership, discriminatory practice, and inappropriate excuses for failure in teaching and learning. "The result is that many educators fail to recognize that "American Indian and Alaska Native children are individuals who differ dramatically from one another, even within their own communities. "

When used appropriately, information about learning styles of different ethnic groups can help educators better address the needs of their students, both in schools that serve predominantly one tribal group and also in urban schools whose students come from different tribes. It can provide insight into students' thinking processes and how they choose to demonstrate knowledge and engage in learning in a group setting.

Thinking Processes

Limited research indicates that the Native American population may be more holistic as well as more visual, aural, and tactile than the general population (Ross, 1982, in Rhodes, 1988). Not surprisingly, these are areas in which the teaching system is weak.

In holistic learning, the learner sees how the parts relate to each other and the whole. Holistic learning involves a multi-level approach in which the learner is encouraged to understand many aspects of an idea at the same time as well as the interrelationships between ideas (Rhodes, 1988). In contrast, Anglo-Americans tend toward categorization by subject and linear thinking.

Backes (1993) uses the Gregorc Style Delineator to classify the holistic and linear learning styles of different cultural groups:

Concrete sequential: orderly, step-by-step, structured, practical, accurate, factual, according to standards, directions-oriented, organized, hands-on, reliable, detailed, particular, and exact.

Abstract sequential: logical, academic, structured, intellectual, a reader, a researcher, theoretical, evaluative, analytical, value judge, thinker, debater, and studious.

Abstract random: sensitivity, emotion, personalization, imagination, interpretation, holistic view, aesthetic appreciation, part of a social group, discussion, reflection upon feelings, flexibility, and adaptability.

Concrete random: independence, creativity, calculated risk-taking, varied and unusual approaches, variety of options, experimenter, inventor, problem-solver, investigator, intuition, agent of change .

A study comparing Chippewa students to the general population showed them to be generally more abstract random learners, while the Anglo-American population was found to be more concrete sequential (Backes, 1993) . Mainstream schooling is clearly geared more toward the concrete sequential learner. One must be cautious, however, to avoid categorizing all Native students as abstract random learners.

Demonstrating Knowledge

In general, American Indian and Alaska Native children learn less through trial and error and more through cycles of extensive observation of a person performing a certain task, repeatedly practicing the task alone, and returning to a trusted adult or older peer to demonstrate competence. They generally value experiential learning without constant supervision and correction (Rhodes, 1988).

Paul Ongtooguk, an Inupiat Eskimo educator, says the prevalent belief that American indigenous people "learn by doing"is a myth. He uses the example of learning to be a hunter in contemporary Inupiat community, which begins with observation. The young boy watches the hunters as they prepare for the hunt then share their game after the hunt. He first observes, listens to their stories, and then serves an apprenticeship.

In contrast to the system of modern Western education, in traditional Inupiat society the community is a school. The observations that a young boy makes are not scheduled in classes, or confined to a school building or other restricted environment. The immersion of the young hunter in the stories and customs of the community are likewise an integral part of the child's life. . . The lessons are tied to the traditional cycle of life. (Ongtooguk, no date) .

Among the Oglala Sioux, individuals also observe tasks before doing. "Observing, practicing, and self-testing in private, and demonstrating a task for approval are essential steps in learning. Making mistakes in public is not accepted "(Brewer, 1977, and Wax, Wax, & Dumont, 1964, in Swisher, 1991). "A public display [such as group recitation ]that violates community or group norms may be an uncomfortable experience " for students ((Swisher, 1991).

It is commonly agreed that students' attitudes and motivation toward school are directly related to their learning and academic achievement. McInerney, McInerney, Bazeley, and Ardington (1998) studied the value of competition in Navajo culture, and how it relates as a motivating factor for students. Competition was not found to be a significant element. While most teachers and parents felt that competition is important in today' s world, students regarded individual success as an important goal, "but not at the expense of one' s peers in a competitive environment. Personal success was determined by bettering one' s own performance. "(p.7).

Classroom individualism, as used in the Western education model, is also contrary to Native learning style. The Nomination, Elicitation, Evaluation (NEE) model is commonly used in America's classrooms. In this model, the teacher asks individual students questions to which the teacher already knows the answer, and then the teacher tells the class whether a student has answered correctly (Lipka et al., 1998). This method of "spotlighting"individual students is contrary to traditional Native child rearing practices (Lipka et al. 1998) .

Learning within a Group

Maintaining harmonious relations within a group and demonstrating humility tend to be highly rated virtues in American Indian and Alaska Native cultures. In an educational setting, this can mean that Native students may be more inclined to repress their abilities in order to match the achievement standards the group is capable of meeting, as observed among Cherokee and Anglo-American students (Brown, 1980, in Swisher, 1991). American Indian and Alaska Native students are more likely to prefer cooperative learning settings and exclusive group approaches to learning, rather than individual work (Tonemah, 1991).

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