The Alutiiq Ethnographic
Bibliography compiled by Rachel Mason

March 1995

This project is supported in part by a grant from the Alaska Humanities Forum and the National Endowment for the Humanities, a federal agency. It is sponsored by the Kodiak Area Native Association, 402 Center Avenue, Kodiak, Alaska 99615.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

I. INTRODUCTION

A. Why This Bibliography Was Written
B. How To Use This Bibliography

II. ALUTIIQ CULTURE, PAST AND PRESENT

A. The Name "Alutiiq"
B. Prehistory
C. Koniag/Chugach Ethnography
D. The Russian Colony
E. The American Era, 1868-1964
F. The Earthquake to the Present Day
G. Cultural Revitalization

III. SOURCES ON ALUTIIQ CULTURE, PAST AND PRESENT

A. General
B. Prehistory
C. History: Russian Era, 1784-1867
D. History: American Era, 1868-1964
E. The 1912 Mount Katmai Eruption
F. The 1964 Earthquake and Tsunami
G. Current Ethnography, 1965-Present
H. The 1989 Exxon Valdez Oil Spill

IV. SPECIAL TOPICS

A. Language
B. Kinship
C. Subsistence
D. Warfare
E. Religion, Art, and Folklore
F. Medicine

V. VIDEOS AND COMPUTER SOFTWARE

VI. ALPHABETICAL LIST OF SOURCES

APPENDIX: MAP OF ALUTIIQ COMMUNITIES IN 1984.

---

THE ALUTIIQ ETHNOGRAPHIC BIBLIOGRAPHY

I. INTRODUCTION

A. WHY THIS BIBLIOGRAPHY WAS WRITTEN

This project was undertaken in order to make what has been written about Alutiiq culture more accessible to the public. The "public" I am most concerned with is the Alutiiq people themselves. Alaska Natives have long been the subject of anthropological study, and many have been frustrated when they were unable to find out what happened to the information they provided. This bibliography is intended to serve primarily as a guide to those who want to find out what has been written and recorded about their own culture.

Anthropology, the study of human beings, is a broad field. Among the several branches of anthropology are archaeology, which focuses on the remains and artifacts of people who lived in the past, and ethnography, which deals with living people. Generally, ethnography is based on face-to-face interaction between the researcher and the people being studied. Ethnographers study human culture: how people live and how they view their world. The branches of anthropology also include physical anthropology, which studies man as a biological species, and linguistic anthropology, which focuses on human language.

While each of the branches of anthropology emphasizes a different aspect of human existence, there are some areas in which they overlap. All anthropologists have typically tried to understand the totality of culture in a holistic way, because they see that different aspects of culture are interconnected For example, in talking about Alutiiq culture, it is impossible to talk about subsistence hunting without talking about religion, because in Alutiiq tradition, humans and animals are part of the same spiritual world.

This bibliography emphasizes ethnography, rather than archaeology; however, it includes some entries by archaeologists, because archaeologists and cultural anthropologists who have attempted to learn about Alutiiq people are both trying to understand the same culture, only at different times. The bibliography also contains references to historical documents written by Russian colonials and others who came into contact with Alutiiq people. These historical documents are also important, since they give information about Alutiiq culture at a particular time.

I have attempted to compile material written or recorded about the entire Alutiiq culture area, including the Kodiak Archipelago, Prince William Sound, Lower Cook Inlet, and the south coast of the Alaska Peninsula. I was able to find more references on Kodiak than the other Alutiiq areas, both because more studies have been undertaken in Kodiak than the other regions and because I was working in Kodiak and had more access to Kodiak sources.

I am greatly indebted to the prior work of Dr. Donald Clark, whose ongoing bibliography of Kodiak Island, Alaska served as a starting point for my own research. Some of my entries and annotations are copied directly from his. Funding for this project was provided by the Alaska Humanities Forum. I am grateful for the Forum's support, as well as for the sponsorship provided by the Kodiak Area Native Association.

B. HOW TO USE THIS BIBLIOGRAPHY

The primary organization of the bibliography is by subject, and alphabetically within each subject by author. Each subject contains a list of annotated entries. If there is no description of the reference, it means that I have not been able to locate or review it.

The bibliography begins with a section on general sources. These are books or articles which deal with all Alaska Native cultures, or with a number of aspects of Alutiiq culture. Following that category, there are headings for prehistory and a series of historical eras, leading to the present day. There are separate sections for references on three disastrous events in Alutiiq history: the 1912 Mount Katmai eruption, the 1964 earthquake and tsunami, and the 1989 Exxon Valdez oil spill. Next, there are sections on special topics. These include language, kinship, subsistence, warfare, religion and mythology, and medicine. There is a short section containing references to videos and a computer curriculum on Alutiiq culture. Because not every source on the Alutiiq fits neatly into a small category, some entries are included in more than one subject heading.

Each bibliographic entry contains information on where the documents can be found. "AEB Collection" stands for "Alutiiq Ethnographic Bibliography Collection." Documents with this notation have been copied from journals or received from authors, government agencies, or private donors, and are located in the Kodiak Area Native Association Cultural Heritage Center.

I would especially like to thank Nancy Jones of Kodiak for her donation of the 1890 Alaska census (listed as Porter 1893). Other documents and tapes which can be found in the archives of the KANA Cultural Heritage Center are identified in the bibliography.

The libraries listed here are the A. Holmes Johnson and Kodiak College libraries in Kodiak; Anchorage Municipal (Loussac), Alaska Resource Library (in the Federal building), and University of Alaska-Anchorage Consortium Library in Anchorage; Homer Public Library; and Valdez Consortium Library. These were chosen because they seem the most accessible to people living in Alutiiq communities. In most cases, information on the locations of these documents comes from the LaserCat catalogue system available in each of the Anchorage libraries.

Several unpublished dissertations are included in this bibliography. While most of them are not available in Alaska libraries, copies of dissertations from United States universities may be ordered by calling UMI Dissertation Services at 1-800-521-0600. There is one Canadian dissertation (Grubis 1981), which may be ordered from Micromedia Limited in Ottawa, Ontario at 1-800-567-1914.

The final portion of the bibliography is an alphabetical listing by author. This contains the same entries as the annotated portions listed by subject.

I hope this bibliography is of assistance to those who want to know more about Alutiiq culture. This project can never be entirely completed, because new work on Alutiiq culture continues to be undertaken, and new articles and books written. If you have suggestions for correcting or updating this volume, please contact me at 4912 Roger Drive, Anchorage, Alaska 99507.

(Webpage converter's note: not all special characters are available; words with an asterisk contain a special character. OCR scanning may not have converted 100%. I've attempted to present this document like the original; so if there are any errors, please contact ANKN Clearninghouse)

II. ALUTIIQ CULTURE, PAST AND PRESENT

A. THE NAME "ALUTIIQ"

The term "Alutiiq" is relatively new. It has been used by Native speakers and scholars since the early 1980s to refer to both the language and culture of the group of Alaska Native people indigenous to the Kodiak Island Archipelago, the southern coast of the Alaska Peninsula, Prince William Sound, and the lower tip of the Kenai Peninsula. These people speak a language so similar to Central Yup'ik (a language spoken by Eskimos in Western Alaska) that they can almost converse with Yup'ik speakers of western Alaska. There are smaller dialect differences between Alutiiq groups.

Beginning in Russian colonial times, most Alutiiqs were called and have called themselves Aleuts, although their language is not very similar to the language spoken by Aleuts on the Aleutian Chain. The Russians recognized that Alutiiqs were different from Aleuts, and referred to them by area as Kadiaks or Chugashes. However, the Russians used one blanket term, Aleuts, to distinguish Alutiiqs and Aleuts from other Native groups. In addition to a common language and traditional culture, Alutiiqs share a history of Russian colonization and the lasting influence of Russian Orthodox religion. Following the end of the Russian colony, Alutiiqs experienced a common induction into commercial fishing when it became the main wage industry in their coastal villages. In the twentieth century, many Alutiiqs also shared the experience of three disasters: the 1912 Mount Katmai eruption, the 1964 Great Alaskan Earthquake and tsunami, and the 1989 Exxon Valdez oil spill.

Those who attempt to find ethnographic references to Alutiiqs will find that they are known by a variety of names. Linguists have referred to the language spoken by Alutiiqs as Sugpiaq, Sugcestun, Suk, Western Eskimo or Pacific Eskimo. Other terms used by anthropologists include Yup'ik or Yuit.

Throughout this report, the term Alutiiq refers to the people and language of the entire culture area. Natives of the Kodiak area and south coast of the Alaska Peninsula are called Koniag (Koniagmiut) and their counterparts in Prince William Sound and Lower Cook Inlet are called Chugach (Chugachmiut). Within the Koniag group are the Qikertarmiut (people of Kodiak Island) and Aglegmiut (people of the Alaska Peninsula). The people of Lower Cook Inlet are the Unegkurmiut, while the Chugach of Prince William Sound are the Paluwigmiut (Haggerty et al. 1991:76-77).

B. PREHISTORY

Some archaeologists believe that the ancestors of the present-day Native Alaskan residents of the Alutiiq culture area have continuously inhabited the area for at least 7,000 years (Jordan and Knecht 1986). They developed a ritually elaborate maritime hunting culture with many connections to other peoples through trade and warfare. Archaeologists have identified several distinct cultural traditions in the Kodiak Island area. These are Ocean Bay (ca. 4500-1400 B.C.), Kachemak (ca. 1400 B.C.-1200 A.D.) and Koniag (ca. 1200-1784 A.D.). The dating of these phases continues to be a matter of debate. Archeological data has been found from each part of the historically known Alutiiq culture area--Kodiak, Alaska Peninsula, Lower Cook Inlet, and Prince William Sound--for all the prehistoric traditions.

The "Ocean Bay" tradition was first identified with a site near the present-day village of Old Harbor on the south end of Kodiak Island. The name "Kachemak" was first used by archeologist Frederica de Laguna in 1930 to describe assemblages from Kachemak Bay. Koniags were the people inhabiting Kodiak Island at the time of European contact. The Chugach were the people living in Prince William Sound when the first Europeans arrived.

Because of purported physiological and cultural differences between the Kachemak and Koniag phase peoples, and because of chronological gaps between phases in the archeological record, there has been debate about the continuity of residence of Alutiiq Natives in prehistory. Some scholars, following Hrdlicka's* early research (1944), argue that the Kachemak people were annihilated in war or were gradually replaced through in-migration of the Koniags. However, more recently archaeologists have suggested that the Kachemak and Koniag peoples are not separate groups, but represent evolutionary phases of a single cultural tradition (Jordan and Knecht 1986).

C. KONIAG/CHUGACH ETHNOGRAPHY

The Koniags and Chugach lived in semi-subterranean sod houses in their permanent winter villages. In summer, they moved to temporary fish camps. They hunted sea mammals such as whales, seals, sea lions, and sea otters. Some Alutiiqs were able to hunt caribou on the Alaska Peninsula. Although the Koniags were more dependent on salmon than the Chugach, salmon was a major dietary staple of all Alutiiqs. They dried great quantities of salmon for use in the winter. They also caught other fish, and gathered intertidal resources on the shores. Hunting was done with harpoons and clubs, and fish were speared, gaffed, harpooned or hooked. Salmon were often caught in weirs built across rivers.

Skilled in handling skin kayaks (which the Russians called bidarkas) and larger wooden boats (bidars), they travelled over rough seas for war raids and more peaceful trading with other Alutiiq groups and with people as far away as the Aleutian Islands and Southeastern Alaska. The Chugach warred with the Koniags and the Tlingits of Southeastern Alaska, and traded with the Athabaskan Ahtna, with the neighboring Eyaks serving as middlemen.

Despite the many contacts with other groups, each Alutiiq village was politically autonomous, headed by an inherited chief. Invariably, the villages were on the coast, reflecting the Alutiiqs' love of and dependence on the sea. Above the level of the village, there were eight autonomous groups of Chugach Natives in Prince William Sound at the time of contact (Hassen 1978). Among the Koniags, there were at least four (Townsend 1980).

There was marked social hierarchy which early European observers interpreted as a class system of nobles, commoners, and slaves. Slaves, who were generally war captives, were the property of wealthy people. Wealth was redistributed in ornate ceremonies which included dancing and feasting.

Government was through a system of hereditary leaders who also had to prove their worthiness to rule. Because these leaders were also wealthy, one word for them is "richman" (Townsend 1980). There were also wise men similar to priests, some of whom composed poetry and songs.

Alutiiq shamans were healers and ritual performers. They could forecast the weather and make contact with the supernatural. Women as well as men could be shamans. Some of the men belonged to a secret whale hunting society. Their wives also had important ritual roles in the whale hunt.

Both men and women could have more than one spouse. Most commonly, an important man had several wives. Divorce was possible and not infrequent.

Marriages were arranged by the parents of the bride and groom. The couple usually went to live with the bride's parents for a year or until they had children of their own. The young husband was expected to work for his in-laws and bring them food during this period.

It is uncertain whether Alutiiq kinship was matrilineal (reckoned through the mother's side), patrilineal (reckoned on the father's side), bilateral (both), or neither. There is some evidence that both Koniags and Chugach were matrilineal, but Alutiiq kinship terminology suggests a bilateral system. The Alutiiqs had many contacts with known matrilineal groups such as the Tlingits and Aleuts. In matrilineal societies, the mother's brother has a strong role in raising children. The importance of such uncles to Alutiiq children as late as the mid-1980s has been interpreted as evidence of past matrilineality (Davis 1986:186).

Alutiiq children were raised permissively but also taught stoicism. At their first menstrual period, girls were secluded for several weeks in a special hut and taught adult skills by a knowledgeable older woman. Adult women stayed in menstrual huts for a few days every month. Men feared bad luck in hunting if their gear came into contact with a menstruating woman. Childbirth also took place in special huts, and both mother and baby stayed there for several days. Before they re-entered society, the new mother and infant would have a sweatbath (or banya, as the sweatbath has been called since Russian times).

Occasionally, a boy child would be raised to dress and act like a woman. Less often, a girl would be raised like a boy. Being a transvestite was an esteemed role, and some transvestites became shamans.

Both men and women wore long hoodless fur or bird skin parkas, and hooded rain parkas (which came to be called by the Siberian Russian term kamleikas) made from strips of intestine. Shoes were not worn in summer, and archaeologists have not discovered any trousers or gloves. Men's (and possibly women's) lips were pierced to allow the insertion of small plugs called labrets. Women's chins were tattooed at puberty. Sea hunters wore bent wood hats in the shape of a cone, decorated with amulets and painted designs.

D. THE RUSSIAN COLONY

Soon after the explorer Vitus Bering first stopped in the Aleutian Islands in 1741, Russian hunters and merchants called promyshlenniki established a colonial presence in what is now Alaska to profit from the furs of sea otters. Lacking the sea mammal hunting expertise of Aleut and Alutiiq people, the Russians exploited Native labor for their colonial venture. They sold the valuable pelts of sea otters to a Chinese market and to fellow Russians.

Following the decline of sea otters in the Aleutian Chain, the Russians turned toward the rich waters of the Kodiak region. Although Kodiak Natives successfully repelled an initial trading visit by a promyshlennik, the Russians' muskets and cannons soon enabled the colonials to dominate the Alutiiqs by force. One way the Russians were able to subjugate the Alutiiqs was through their practice of taking hostages, usually the children of chiefs. When one of the Russian leaders, Shelikhov, approached the southern end of Kodiak Island, several thousand Natives took refuge on a large rock near Sitkalidak Island. They were betrayed by an Alutiiq man travelling with the Russians who knew the hidden access to the refuge rock. Hundreds of Natives perished as they jumped over a cliff to escape. Others were shot with cannons or rounded up and speared to death.

Thus in 1784 the first sustained Russian contact with Alutiiqs occurred when Shelikhov's men founded a Russian settlement on Kodiak Island at Three Saints Bay, near the present-day village of Old Harbor. Soon they conscripted the local population as laborers in the sea otter hunting industry. Able-bodied Alutiiq men were organized into work groups and forced to hunt at sea in large fleets of bidarkas, while women, old men, and children were made to work on shore. Hardship, accidents, and starvation, along with diseases introduced by the Russians, quickly led to a decimation of the Native people. By the end of the Russian colony in 1867, the pre-contact population of perhaps 8,000 on Kodiak Island had dwindled to around 2,000. The many deaths disrupted every aspect of Alutiiq society.

The Chugach had less intense and less devastating interaction with the Russians than did the Koniags. The first European to visit Chugach territory was Vitus Bering in 1741, on a further leg of the same journey in which he travelled to the Aleutian Islands. Spanish explorers soon followed. Captain Cook, who arrived in 1778, was the first European to meet the Chugach people. In 1793, the Russians founded a post near Nuchek on Hinchenbrook Island. Partly because the population of Prince William Sound was quite small (between 400 and 1000 people), and perhaps also because the sea otter population was not as large there as in other areas, the Russians did not see the Chugach as a likely source of mass conscripted labor for sea otter hunting. Similarly, while Russians traded with Alutiiqs on the Alaska Peninsula, they did not establish such a ruinous colonial presence there as they did on Kodiak Island.

In 1793, the Russians decided to move the capital of their colony from Three Saints Bay to the northern part of Kodiak for better access to lumber. They established a new center of government, which they named Pavlov Harbor ("Paul Harbor"), at the site of today's city of Kodiak. Pavlov Harbor's central position in the colonial empire lasted until 1808, when the capital was again moved, this time to Sitka, for closer access to the Russian's expanded holdings in California.

A contingent of Russian Orthodox clergy arrived in Kodiak in 1794 to convert Alaskan Natives to Christianity. They immediately began to perform mass baptisms and marriages, and soon afterwards established a school and orphanage near Kodiak. The clergy also opposed the abuses the colonial officials inflicted on Natives. One of the original eight monks, Father Herman, was canonized by the Orthodox church in 1971. This saint, highly revered among Alutiiq Orthodox people, is credited with performing miracles such as healing the sick and turning back a tsunami.

Among the Alutiiq people, the Orthodox church is the most enduring remnant of the Russian colony in Alaska, and is a central feature of social life in almost every village. Among the American missionary groups who began to work in the territory of Alaska in the early 1880s were the Baptists, who sent religious workers to the Kodiak area, Prince William Sound, and later the Alaska Peninsula. As part of the Baptist mission, an orphanage and school were opened in Kodiak in 1886. While some Alutiiq villages now have both Protestant and Orthodox churches, the Russian Orthodox church has remained the dominant religion in every Alutiiq community except Ivanof Bay.

Today, most Alutiiqs are baptized, married, and buried in Russian Orthodox ceremonies. In the villages, services are usually led by Native lay readers. Priests who live in Anchorage or Kodiak travel to villages for important ceremonies. It has been suggested that the Alaskan Russian Orthodox religion incorporates some indigenous beliefs and customs (Oleksa 1982). Membership in the Orthodox church became a symbol of Native identity (Davis 1970; Rathburn 1984).

In the 1840s, following a smallpox epidemic, the Russian colonial administration consolidated the remaining Native population of Kodiak Island into seven villages. Two villages were intended as "creole" settlements. Creoles were the children of Native women and Russian men, or the children of creoles. This group increased in size during the years of the Russian colony. Many creoles were educated for trades or religious leadership in Russian church-operated schools. Creole settlements included Afognak and Ouzinkie, in the northern part of the Kodiak Archipelago; these villages were also conceived as "retirement communities" for colonial employees, especially those with Native families, who wanted to settle permanently in Alaska. There was also a significant creole population in the Russian capital, which is now Kodiak city.

During the Russian period Natives became more dependent on European goods and were increasingly involved in a cash economy. Some Alutiiqs in outlying areas, such as the shore of the Alaska Peninsula, traded furs and other products to the Russians instead of providing labor in the indenture system that characterized other Alutiiq-Russian relations. In the final days of the Russian colony, Alutiiqs began working for trade goods or cash. As Natives became more involved in trading and a wage economy, they became bound by debt to traders and employers.

E. THE AMERICAN ERA, 1868-1964

By the time the Russians sold Alaska to the United States in 1867, their colonial venture had become unprofitable. Soon after the sale, a number of American entrepreneurs arrived to continue sea otter hunting until the near demise of this animal led to a ban on hunting it in 1911. The Americans attempted various other industries, including trapping, whaling, cattle ranching, and gold mining. A number of tiny islands around the Kodiak Archipelago and off the Alaska Peninsula were deemed suitable for fox farming. The farms were largely owned by trading companies which hired Native men to hunt and fish to provide food for the foxes.

The salmon fishing industry, which had both high risks and high profits, enjoyed the most dramatic and lasting success of the new commercial efforts. The barely-tapped potential of the Karluk River on the west side of Kodiak Island, one of the richest salmon streams in the world, had long been recognized. The Russians built zapors (weirs) on the river to catch red salmon, and Alutiiq women dried the fish for winter use for the colony. A commercial salmon saltery was experimentally operated by the Russians on the Karluk River in 1867, the same year the United States purchased Alaska.

The first cannery in Karluk was established in 1882. Within a few years, there were several canneries there. By 1890, there were fish processing operations at Chignik on the Alaska Peninsula and on the mouth of the Copper River in Prince William Sound. Canneries rose and fell regularly, their competition sometimes manifested in sabotage of each other's efforts. Generally, the isolation of the canneries discouraged any interference from the government, to the satisfaction of unscrupulous operators. The expansion of the industry quickly led to overfishing and a dramatic decline in salmon runs.

Some Natives were hired as cannery workers, but the early cannery operators preferred Chinese labor, mainly hired in through Chinese employment contractors. In most canneries, only a few Natives were hired to work as laborers in fishing operations. In 1900, for example, the three canneries in Karluk together had 43 white, 8 Native, and 263 Chinese processing workers. They employed 171 white and 13 Native fishermen (Moser 1899:53). Cannery operators complained that Natives were likely to leave before the season was over, often in order to pursue seasonal subsistence fishing and hunting.

Starting in the 1870s, Norwegians, Danes, and Swedes were among those who came to hunt sea otters around Kodiak; a later wave of Scandinavians came to work as fishermen. Some of them married local Alutiiq women and settled permanently in the Kodiak area and Alaska Peninsula. The Scandinavian names of many Alutiiq Natives are a reflection of this intermarriage.

Soon after the establishment of the Karluk, the fishing industry grew in other parts of the Alutiiq culture area, especially Chignik, Afognak and Uyak (now Larsen Bay). Natives sold fish to the canneries. Most operations were confined to beach seining until purse seining took hold following the advent of fuel-powered boats in the 1920s.

Natives became increasingly involved in commercial fishing after 1900. Few owned their own boats, but some fished on cannery-owned boats. Most Native fishermen moved to fishing camps for the summer, harvesting salmon with beach seines. As Natives became fuller participants in a cash economy, they coordinated traditional hunting and fishing with commercial fishing.

The lives of Alutiiq residents of the Alaska Peninsula and Kodiak were disrupted by the volcanic eruption of Mount Katmai in June 1912. The Alaska Peninsula villages of Katmai and Douglas were destroyed by ash from the eruption. People from those communities were first brought to Afognak, then relocated back to the mainland where they established the new village of Perryville, named after the captain of the ship that brought them there. The volcano covered Kodiak with eighteen inches of ash, clogged salmon streams and killed vegetation. Commercial salmon fishing was halted that year. In subsequent years, however, the ash served as fertilizer for bumper-crop gardens.

Halibut fishermen from the Northwest Coast, many of them Norwegian immigrants, began stopping in Kodiak in the early twentieth century. By the 1920s, herring and cod boats also fished in Kodiak waters, although Native Kodiak fishermen's efforts continued to be mainly concentrated on salmon fishing.

In 1938 and 1939, the U. S. Congress allocated funds for the construction of a Navy base at Kodiak. During World War II, the military presence increased dramatically. Kodiak became a base for as many as 15,000 servicemen. After the war, the Navy base remained in Kodiak and later became a Coast Guard base.

In the post-war years, salmon continued to be the major fishery. Both Native and white fishermen began to concentrate more on purse seining than other gear types. There were several the town of Kodiak, and several more scattered in remote areas throughout the island. Commercial fishing was the main source of cash for Natives living in Kodiak area villages, who continued to fish for subsistence as well as for sale. In some villages, residents moved each summer to live and work at nearby canneries.

F. THE EARTHQUAKE TO THE PRESENT DAY

The Great Alaskan Earthquake of March 27, 1964, and the tsunami that followed it, caused great destruction to Alutiiq communities. Three Native villages, Chenega, Kaguyak, and Afognak, were destroyed. Twenty-three people died in Chenega, about a third of the population of the village. There were eleven deaths in the Kodiak Island area. The town of Kodiak was greatly damaged, as was the village of Ouzinkie. Old Harbor was practically demolished and had to be substantially rebuilt. Residents of Afognak were relocated to a new village, Port Lions, and Kaguyak villagers were moved to the existing community of Akhiok.

While a considerable portion of Kodiak's fishing fleet was destroyed by the earthquake and tsunami, the rebuilding of Kodiak city hastened its emergence as the "king crab capital." The canneries near Old Harbor and Ouzinkie, destroyed in the earthquake, were never rebuilt. As a result, processing was increasingly consolidated in the town of Kodiak. Some fishermen, both in Alutiiq villages and in non-Native centers such as Kodiak and Cordova, were able to buy bigger and more modern boats with disaster loans.

During the 1960s, Alaska Natives began pressing for the settlement of land claims. The discovery of oil at Prudhoe Bay gave the state and federal government new incentive to settle these claims. In 1971, the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act was passed, allotting cash settlements and land grants to regional and village Native corporations. The regional corporation for the Kodiak area is Koniag, Inc., and Chugach, Inc. represents Natives of Prince William Sound and Lower Cook Inlet. Residents of the five Chignik villages on the Alaska Peninsula belong to Bristol Bay Native Corporation. Enrollment in Native corporations propelled the Alutiiq people into new forms of government and sometimes unfamiliar business ventures.

In 1975, the state of Alaska issued limited entry permits for commercial salmon fishing, giving the right to fish only to a limited number of people with gear licenses who could establish a past fishing history. This had a dramatic effect on skipper-crew relationships. It also changed the ease of entry into fishing for both Native and non-Native fishermen. Alutiiqs who did not qualify for the permits because they were young crewmen at the time of the establishment of limited entry, or who sold their original issue permits, found themselves locked out of fishing in their home communities. In the late 1970s and early 1980s, most Alutiiq Natives who were commercial fishermen continued to concentrate on salmon, although some diversified into other fisheries such as herring, cod, and crab.

The state of Alaska passed a law in 1978 granting harvest priority to subsistence users. The term "subsistence" has a special meaning in Alaska, referring to the harvesting, processing, and consumption of wild foods. It implies not only personal harvesting, but also cultural activities. Subsistence is a lifestyle that involves sharing, teaching, and learning, oral traditions, and respect for the land and resources. It is a past and present relationship between people and their environment. The issue of determining which Alaskans are eligible for subsistence remained contentious and unresolved in Alaska throughout the 1980s and early 1990s, involving further state and federal legislation as well as several court actions.

Both commercial and subsistence harvests were strongly affected by the huge Exxon Valdez oil spill which occurred on March 27, 1989. When the Exxon Valdez tanker hit Bligh Reef, it spilled almost 11 million gallons of oil into Prince William Sound. Response teams were unable to contain the oil before it was carried by currents throughout the entire Alutiiq culture area, ending as far south as Ivanof Bay on the Alaska Peninsula. The oil first hit Kodiak area beaches in mid-April. The salmon season there was closed due to the fear of oil contamination of fish. Fishermen in Prince William Sound and Lower Cook Inlet were eventually able to fish that summer, but their season was disrupted by the oil and the cleanup efforts. In the Chignik villages on the Alaska Peninsula, salmon fishing was allowed but was restricted to a smaller area than normal. In all Alutiiq communities, subsistence harvests of salmon and other resources were considerably lessened by the presence of oil, by the residents' involvement in the cleanup effort, and by their fears of oil contamination of subsistence foods.

Today, the Alutiiq villages include Akhiok, Karluk, Larsen Bay, Old Harbor, Ouzinkie, and Port Lions in the Kodiak region; Chignik Bay, Chignik Lagoon, Chignik Lake, Ivanof Bay, and Perryville on the Alaska Peninsula; Port Graham and Nanwalek in Lower Cook Inlet; and Chenega Bay and Tatitlek in Prince William Sound. Port Lions was built after the 1964 earthquake and settled by residents of Afognak, which was destroyed in the disaster. Some of the survivors of the earthquake and tsunami at Chenega founded Chenega Bay at a new site in 1982. Nanwalek was formerly called English Bay but in the 1990s changed its name back to the Alutiiq name for the community. The villages range in population from about 35 to 300; all are predominantly Native. There are also sizeable Alutiiq populations in the larger towns of Kodiak, Cordova, and Valdez.

G. CULTURAL REVITALIZATION

A cultural revitalization movement has strenthened the identity of Alutiiq people, and has enhanced their pride in their cultural traditions. Similar movements have occurred elsewhere among Alaska Natives. In the Kodiak area, efforts toward cultural revitalization began to gather force in the early 1980s, aided greatly by the development of an energetic cultural heritage program within the Kodiak Area Native Association. The North Pacific Rim Health Corporation (now renamed Chugachmiut), representing Alutiiq communities in Prince William Sound and on the Kenai Peninsula, has also supported programs contributing to cultural identity and self-esteem.

At the time of the passage of the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act (ANCSA) in 1971, enrollment in Native corporations was a controversial issue for some Alutiiq people who had not previously thought of themselves as Natives, but instead as Russian or Creole. During the Russian period, intensive intermarriage occurred between Russians and Natives, and the children of these unions were known as "creoles." Later intermarriages with other Europeans, especially Scandinavians, resulted in the further "creolization" of Alutiiq culture. Under the rule that enrollment required that a person be at least one-fourth Native, and the original stipulation that the earliest identified creole in a person's ancestry was to be considered 50 percent Native, some Alutiiq Natives with creole ancestors were at first excluded. After a series of hearings and appeals, the Secretary of the Interior issued an order that these people were eligible for enrollment (Pullar 1990b:3).

The ANCSA enrollment effort attempted to group together people of common cultural heritage in regional corporations, Alutiiqs were enrolled in three different corporations. Although both Koniag, Inc. and Chugach, Inc. are dominated by Alutiiq people, Alutiiqs on the Alaska Peninsula were included in the mainly-Yup'ik Bristol Bay Native Corporation. While enrollment in Native corporations created a new institutional framework for Alutiiq unity within each region, it also underscored the separation of Alutiiq subgroups.

In 1976, Kodiak High School began a project modelled after the Foxfire program previously used elsewhere in the United States, in which students interviewed elders and other knowledgeable people and wrote stories about local traditions. Other communities in the Alutiiq culture area (Ouzinkie, English Bay, Port Graham, and Cordova) also established such programs. Excerpts from the Kodiak students' journal Elwani/Iluani and from interviews conducted by youths on the Alaska Peninsula are included in Vick (1983). These projects were intended to teach the younger generation to record their elders' traditions and knowledge that might otherwise be lost, and to reinforce a sense of continuity between the generations.

The Kodiak Area Native Association's Cultural Heritage Program, begun in the early 1980s, made great strides in fostering Alutiiq pride and achievement. Some projects included oral history programs, arts and crafts programs, elders' conferences, and educational outreach. KANA worked closely with archaeologists conducting research on the island and coordinated local Native youths' involvement in archeological excavations. It encouraged the development of an Alutiiq language dictionary, grammar, and school curriculum. In 1988, KANA and the Alaska Humanities Forum sponsored a Kodiak Island Cultural Heritage Conference, and the next year, KANA hosted another conference focusing specifically on kayaks. Several annual Cultural Heritage Conferences have followed.

Also in the 1980s, a group of traditional dancers formed in Kodiak. At first called the Shoonaq Dancers, they have been renamed the Alutiiq Dancers and are sponsored by the Kodiak Tribal Council. They have traveled widely to perform in the United States and overseas. The Kodiak Tribal Council also markets Native crafts and has worked to protect Native subsistence rights.

Part of KANA's mission is to work toward solutions to health and social problems. Its leadership has taken the view that such problems, including alcohol abuse, can be addressed through developing cultural pride and self-esteem. KANA's social service programs have therefore focused not only on counseling individuals, but on encouraging community activities that allow elders and other knowledgeable persons to transmit traditions to younger people. Toward this end, KANA has held several Elders' Conferences, often in conjunction with a Cultural Heritage conference.

Another aspect of cultural revitalization is the Native sobriety movement. The village of Akhiok received widespread attention in 1988 when at first a few residents of the village, then almost every person in the village, stopped drinking. One of the aspects of sobriety that Akhiok residents said they appreciated was having the time and energy to participate in traditional subsistence activities with their families. The movement had some setbacks during the months following the 1989 Exxon Valdez oil spill, but many Akhiok residents and other Alutiiqs have persevered in the collective sobriety movement.

Ironically, although the Exxon Valdez oil spill wreaked havoc in residents' lives throughout the Alutiiq culture area, it also contributed to a sense of cultural unity. Some Alutiiq people had more opportunities to travel to other parts of the culture area (for example, to work on the cleanup operation) and to communicate with residents of other Alutiiq communities whose lives had been disrupted by the oil spill. At the end of the summer of 1990, Native residents of Prince William Sound hosted an Alutiiq cultural celebration, inviting other Alutiiq people from Prince William Sound, Lower Cook Inlet, and the Kodiak area.

An important development for Alutiiq identity was the 1991 repatriation to Larsen Bay of human remains that had been taken by Ales Hrdlicka* in the 1930s and stored in the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, D.C. The story of Hrdlicka's* excavations and of Kodiak Island Natives' efforts to retrieve the Larsen Bay bones is detailed in Bray and Killion (1994). The Smithsonian was reluctant to relinquish the remains until it was demonstrated that the people whose bones were taken were ancestral to the present-day residents of Larsen Bay. The eventual return and reburial of the remains contributed to Kodiak Alutiiqs' unity with their past.

In the 1990s, some Alutiiq tribal organizations made new forays into ecotourism (or "ethno-tourism "). In 1994, the Afognak Native Corporation instituted a program called Dig Afognak that allows tourist participation in archaeological excavations and also offers instruction in Alutiiq cultural traditions. The Kodiak Tribal Council has promoted a tour package which includes learning about Alutiiq culture and performances by the Alutiiq Dancers.

The 1990s have seen new progress in Alutiiqs' efforts to make sure their language is learned by a younger generation. Due to the work of Alutiiq speakers such as the late Nina Olsen, Florence Pestrikoff and Ephraim Agnot, Sr., as well as to the efforts of Philomena Hausler-Knecht, Alutiiq language classes have been held in Kodiak area elementary and high schools and at Kodiak College. Port Graham residents participated in a language course in 1993.

Since the passage of ANCSA in 1971, Alutiiqs' pride in and interest in their culture has slowly grown, thanks in large part to cultural revitalization efforts. Younger people are learning to speak the Alutiiq language, once thought to be lost or nearly forgotten. KANA is in the process of opening a Native museum in Kodiak that will be a center for research and education as well as a repository for Alutiiq art and artifacts. The establishment and development of cultural heritage programs, the sobriety movement, the response to the Exxon Valdez oil spill, the Larsen Bay repatriation, the development of ecotourism, and the new museum are all part of a growing sense of Alutiiq unity and continuity with tradition.

III. SOURCES ON ALUTIIQ CULTURE, PAST AND PRESENT

III. A. GENERAL

Alaska Department of Community and Regional Affairs

1981 Village profiles prepared by DOWL Engineers, with North Pacific Aerial Surveys and Honda Graphics. Akhiok, Karluk, Larsen Bay, Old Harbor, Ouzinkie, Port Lions.

A series of aerial maps with narrative portions on community government and services. Although the information given is dated, it would be useful for historical studies.

Location: KANA Cultural Heritage Center Archives.

 

Alaska Geographic

1977 Kodiak, Island of Change Alaska Geographic 4(3).

Includes a short summary of Kodiak prehistory and ethnography by Donald Clark, pp. 10-16.

Location: A. Holmes Johnson, Alaska Resource Library, UAA.

 

Alaska Geographic

1979 Alaska's Native People. Alaska Geographic 6(3).

The chapter on the Koniags and Chugach, pp. 175-193, contains photos of several well-known residents. Karl Armstrong, Jr. wrote an essay on the Koniagmiut, pp. 176-179.

Location: A. Holmes Johnson, Anchorage Municipal, Alaska Resource, UAA, Homer Public Library.

 

Alaska Geographic

1992a Kodiak. Alaska Geographic 19(3)

Includes a summary of the prehistory of the Kodiak Archipelago by Richard A Knecht, pp. 30-35.

Location: Kodiak College, UAA, Homer Public Library.

 

Alaska Geographic

1992b Prince William Sound. Alaska Geographic 20(1).

Section by Chris Wooley and Jim Haggerty, "The Hidden History of Chugach Bay," pp. 12-17, tells of Native population and traditional culture. Chenega Bay and Tatitlek are described on pp. 56-60.

Location: A. Holmes Johnson, Anchorage Municipal, Alaska Resource Library, UAA, Valdez Consortium.

 

Alaska Geographic

1994 The Alaska Peninsula. Alaska Geographic 21(1).

Brief mention of prehistory and Native residents of the Alaska Peninsula, pp. 13-15. Discussion of contemporary villages concentrates on commercial fishing and non-Natives.

Location: Anchorage Municipal.

 

Arnold, Robert D.

1976 Alaska Native Land Claims. Anchorage: The Alaska Native Foundation.

An introduction to the history of the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act and the founding of Native corporations. Includes thumbnail sketches of the main Alaska Native culture areas, including prehistory and history, and brief descriptions of Chugach, Inc. and Koniag, Inc., the two regional corporations with a majority of Alutiiq members.

Location: A. Holmes Johnson, Kodiak College, Anchorage Municipal, Alaska Resource Library, UAA, Homer Public Library, Valdez Consortium.

 

Case, David S.

1984 Alaska Natives and American Law. Fairbanks: University of Alaska Press.

Laws and court cases affecting Alaska Natives, including land claims, reservations (there is an enlightening discussion of Karluk's status as a reservation, pp. 102-107), human services, subsistence, and self-government. In Chapter 8, "Traditional Native Societies," written by Anne Shinkwin (pp. 354-359), Alutiiqs are included as part of Southwestern Alaskan Yup'ik.

Location: A. Holmes Johnson, Kodiak College, Anchorage Municipal, Alaska Resource, UAA, Homer Public Library, Valdez Consortium.

 

Chaffin, Yule, Trisha Hampton Krieger, and Michael Rostad

1983 Alaska's Konyag Country Pratt Publishing

An update and revision of Chaffin's earlier "Koniag to King Crab." History of the Kodiak area, with many old and new photos. Also includes sections on Kodiak villages.

Location: A. Holmes Johnson, Kodiak College, UAA, Homer Public Library.

 

Clark, Donald W.

1975 Koniag-Pacific Eskimo Bibliography. Ottawa: National Museums of Canada

Includes prehistory, history, and current ethnography, as well as articles appearing in popular journals.

Location: A. Holmes Johnson, Kodiak College, Anchorage Municipal, Alaska Resource, UAA, Valdez Consortium.

 

Clark, Donald W.

1984a Pacific Eskimo: Historical Ethnography. In Handbook of North American Indians: Arctic Vol. 5 D. Damas, ed. Washington, D.C. : Smithsonian Institution. Pp. 185-197.

Description of Alutiiq culture as observed by Russians and other early European visitors.

Location: A. Holmes Johnson, Anchorage Municipal, Alaska Resource, UAA, Homer Public Library, Valdez Consortium.

 

Clark, Donald W.

1988 The Peoples and History of Kodiak Island, Alaska: A Bibliography. Ottawa, Ontario, Canada: Unpublished manuscript and diskette.

A continuation or work begun for Clark 1975. The author sees this bibliography as a work in progress.

Location: AEB collection.

 

Davis, Nancy Yaw

1984 Contemporary Pacific Eskimo. In Handbook of North American Indians: Arctic. Vol. 5. D. Damas, ed. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution. Pp. 198-204.

Summary of recent history and influences on the four different Alutiiq areas (Kodiak Archipelago, Alaska Peninsula, Lower Cook Inlet, and Prince William Sound). Includes discussion of involvement in commercial fishing, the Russian Orthodox Church, and disasters (1912 Mount Katmai eruption and 1964 earthquake and tsunami), along with profiles of Alutiiq villages. Also listed under 1912 Mount Katmai Eruption and 1964 Earthquake and Tsunami.

Location: A. Holmes Johnson, Anchorage Municipal, Alaska Resource, UAA, Homer Public Library, Valdez Consortium.

 

Fitzhugh, William W. and Aron Crowell, eds.

1988 Crossroads of Continents: Cultures of Siberia and Alaska. Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press.

An edited volume of papers on Siberia and Alaska. Contains several references to Kodiak, placing its culture and prehistory in broad context, and illustrates in color numerous ethnographic and archaeologic specimens.

Location: A. Holmes Johnson, Kodiak College, UAA, Homer Public Library, Valdez Consortium.

 

Haggerty, James C., Christopher B. Wooley, Jon M. Erlandson, and Aron Crowell

1991 The 1990 Exxon Cultural Resource Program Site Protection and Maritime Cultural Ecology in Prince William Sound and the Gulf of Alaska. Anchorage: Exxon Shipping Company and Exxon Company, U.S.A.

Chapter 4 presents a very complete cultural and historical information on Alutiiqs. Contains many pictures of traditional items. Also listed under 1989 Exxon Valdez Oil Spill.

Location: Anchorage Municipal, Alaska Resource, UAA, Valdez Consortium.

 

Krauss, Michael E.

1982 Native Peoples and Languages of Alaska. Fairbanks: Alaska Native Language Center, Center for Northern Educational Research, University of Alaska.

Wall map showing geographic distribution of language groups The Alutiiq language area is shown as "Pacific Eskimo" or "Sugpiaq." Also listed under Language.

Location: UAA.

 

Langdon, Steve J.

1987 The Native People of Alaska. Anchorage: Greatland Graphics.

This slim volume with chapters on each of the major Alaska Native groups provides a good overview. Alutiiqs are categorized as part of "Southern Eskimos - Yuit" in pp. 40-53.

Location: UAA, Valdez Consortium.

 

Mobley, Charles M. , et al.

1990 The 1989 Exxon Valdez Cultural Resource Program. Anchorage: Exxon Shipping Company and Exxon Company, USA.

This multi-authored report of the Exxon Valdez program contains succinct regional summaries of prehistory and natural environment. Also listed under 1989 Exxon Valdez Oil Spill.

Location: Anchorage Municipal, Alaska Resource, UAA, Valdez Consortium.

 

Oswalt, Wendell

1967 Alaskan Eskimos. San Francisco: Chandler Publishing.

A general volume on Alaskan Eskimos which contains information on the Pacific Eskimos, or Alutiiq people.

Location: A. Holmes Johnson, Kodiak College, UAA , Homer Public Library, Valdez Consortium.

 

Orth, Donald J.

1971 Dictionary of Alaska Place Names. Washington: Geological Survey Professional Paper 567.

Reprinted from the 1967 edition with minor revisions. Includes many place names in the Alutiiq culture area.

Location: A. Holmes Johnson, Anchorage Municipal, UAA, Valdez Consortium.

 

Pullar, Gordon L.

1994a Alutiiq. In Native America in the Twentieth Century: An Encyclopedia. Mary B. Davis, ed. New York: Garland Publishing. Pp. 29-31.

A concise summary of the history and culture of Alutiiq people as a whole, and of regional subgroups. Includes a description of recent events and movements contributing to cultural revitalization. Also listed under Cultural Revitalization.

Location: AEB collection.

 

Townsend, Joan

1980 Ranked Societies of the Alaska Pacific Rim. In Alaska Native Culture and History. Y. Kotani and W. Workman, eds. Senri Ethnological Series No. 4. Senri, Osaka: National Museum of Ethnology. Pp. 123-156.

Interprets historical ethnographic information for various groups, including the Koniags. The book is a collection of papers given at the Second International Symposium of the National Museum of Ethnology. Townsend asserts that there are broad similarities in social organization among several groups (she objects to calling them "tribes") of southern Alaska, including the Koniags, Chugach, Aleuts, Ahtna, and Eyaks. These are all ranked societies which traditionally had slaves. Townsend uses the term "richman" to refer to a leader in these societies. Wealth and inheritance were the two important factors in rank. Leaders also had to demonstrate their worthiness. Townsend suggests that southern Alaska societies had at least two spheres of exchange: one for common objects such as food and skins, and another for wealth items such as shells and amber. Slaves might have been exchanged in a third sphere.

Location: Alaska Resource, UAA.

 

Townsend, Joan B.

1983 Pre-contact Political Organization and Slavery in Aleut Society. In The Development of Political Organization in Native North America. Elizabeth Tooker, ed. Philadelphia: American Ethnological Society. Pp. 120-132.

Mainly about the Aleuts, but also discusses Koniag slavery.

Location: Not found.

 

III.B. PREHISTORY

Clark, Donald W.

1974 Koniag Prehistory. Tubinger Monographien zur Urgeschichte, Band 1. Stuttgart, Germany: Verlag W. Kohlhammer.

This document, which contains much ethnographic information, is a revision of the author's 1968 dissertation.

Location: A. Holmes Johnson, Alaska Resource.

 

Clark, Donald W.

1984b Prehistory of the Pacific Eskimo Region. In Handbook of North American Indians: Arctic. Vol. 5. D. Damas, ed. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution. Pp. 136-148.

A good introduction to sources on Alutiiq prehistory. Clark mentions sites in the Kodiak Archipelago, Alaska Peninsula, Kachemak Bay, and Prince William Sound. Not much comparative information is available from Prince William Sound because many early sites were destroyed by changes in the level of the land.

Location: A. Holmes Johnson, Anchorage Municipal, Alaska Resource, UAA, Homer Public Library, Valdez Consortium.

 

Clark, Donald W.

1992 Only a Skin Boat Load or Two: The Role of Migration in Kodiak Prehistory. Arctic Anthropology 29(1):2-17.

Addresses the problem of whether the Koniags were an outgrowth of the earlier Kachemak people, or migrated to Kodiak. Using archaeological and linguistic evidence, it is proposed that there was a modest amount of migration, but not population replacement. This article gives a concise summary of current findings on the phases of Alutiiq prehistory.

Location: UAA, AEB collection

 

Clark, Donald W.

1994a Archaeology on Kodiak: The Quest for Prehistory and its Implications for North Pacific Prehistory. Anthropological Papers of the University of Alaska 24(1&2).

A guide to the archaeological literature up to 1990.

Location: A. Holmes Johnson, Kodiak College, Anchorage Municipal, Alaska Resource, Valdez Consortium.

 

Clark, Donald W.

1994b Still a Big Story: The Prehistory of Kodiak Island. In Reckoning With the Dead: The Larsen Bay Repatriation and the Smithsonian Institution. Tamara L. Bray and Thomas W Killion, eds. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press. Pp. 137-149.

Summarizes the archeological work done on Kodiak Island and the prehistory of the area. The author points out that there is still no definite answer to the key question of continuity, either between Kachemak and Koniag traditions, or between Ocean Bay and Kachemak traditions.

Location: Kodiak and Anchorage libraries.

 

de Laguna, Frederica

1934 The Archaeology of Cook Inlet, Alaska. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Museum

Record of materials found in Lower Cook Inlet and Kachemak Bay. De Laguna used the term "Kachemak" to describe the culture of a prehistoric group of people that lived in this area. The name has also been applied to a cultural phase of Kodiak Island and parts of the shore of the Alaska Peninsula during this same period, perhaps around 1400 B.C. to 1200 A.D. De Laguna mentions sites at Alexandrovsk at English Bay (today known as Nanwalek) which have the Native name "Nanu'aluq," and at Port Graham, called in Alutiiq "Palu'vik." Seldovia has a Kenai Athabaskan name, "Axitaxnu." The author promises a further report of research in Prince William Sound.

Location: Kodiak College, .Anchorage Municipal, UAA.

 

de Laguna, Frederica

1956 Chugach Prehistory: The Archaeology of Prince William Sound, Alaska. Seattle: University of Washington Publications in Anthropology, Vol. 13.

Excavations and surveys in Prince William Sound in the summers of 1930 and 1933. The author calls the culture "Palugvik." The material compares to Kachemak findings in other Alutiiq areas. De Laguna concludes that Prince William Sound, Lower Cook Inlet, Kodiak and parts of the Alaska Peninsula are subareas of the "Pacific Eskimo-Aleut province." In discussing findings on Kodiak Island, de Laguna harshly criticizes the work of Ales Hrdlicka*.

Location: Anchorage Municipal, Alaska Resource, UAA, Valdez Consortium.

 

Donta, Christopher

1988 Archaeological Indications of Evolving Social Complexity on Kodiak Island, Alaska. Unpublished M.A. Thesis, Department of Anthropology, Bryn Mawr College.

Looks at late prehistoric material culture and describes practices such as gambling.

Location: Bryn Mawr College.

 

Donta, Christopher

1992 Koniag Ceremonialism. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, Bryn Mawr College.

Karluk and Monashka Bay sites provide data on traditional Alutiiq ceremonial life. A model previously applied to ranked societies of the Northwest Coast is employed to interpret Koniag cultural change.

Location: UMI Dissertation Services.

 

Donta, Christopher

1994 Continuity and Function in the Ceremonial Material Culture of the Koniag Eskimo. In Reckoning with the Dead: The Larsen Bay Repatriation Case and the Smithsonian Institution. Tamara L. Bray and Thomas W. Killion, eds. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press. Pp. 122-136.

A Koniag site in Monashka Bay gives clues to the elaborate ceremonial life of this tradition. Also listed under Religion, Art, and Folklore.

Location: Kodiak and Anchorage libraries.

 

Dumond, Don E.

1994 The Uyak Site in Prehistory. In Reckoning With the Dead: The Larsen Bay Repatriation Case and the Smithsonian Institution. Tamara L Bray and Thomas W. Killion, eds. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press. Pp. 43-53.

The original version of this paper was written in response to Pullar and Hausler-Knecht's (1990) argument for continuity of residence at the Uyak site. Dumond's perspective is that of a broad regional context. While he concedes that nearby Karluk seems to have had at least partial continuity of residence, he says there is no archeological evidence that specifically demonstrates continuity of residence in Larsen Bay/Uyak.

Location: Kodiak and Anchorage libraries.

 

Hausler-Knecht, Philomena

1993 Early Prehistory of the Kodiak Archipelago. Paper presented at the International Seminar on the Origins, Development, and Spread of North Pacific-Bering Sea Maritime Cultures, Honolulu, Hawaii.

Discusses ties between weather and subsistence in the Kodiak area, such as the problems the weather poses for hunters. Also listed under Subsistence.

Location: Author.

 

Heizer, Robert F.

1956 Archaeology of the Uyak Site, Kodiak Island, Alaska. University of California Anthropological Records 17:1.

Describes Hrdlicka's* collections from "Our Point," near the present village of Larsen Bay; contains data on burials and houses.

Location: A. Holmes Johnson, Anchorage Municipal, Alaska Resources.

 

Hrdlicka, Ales*

1975 The Anthropology of Kodiak Island. Philadelphia: Wistar Institute of Anatomy and Biology. Reprint of 1944 edition by AMS Press, New York.

Part I is primarily quotations from historical sources. Part II is an archaeological survey of Kodiak Islands. Part III contains daily notes for the Uyak excavations at Our Point, Jones Point, and Larsen Bay, and a summary of archaeological work. Part IV deals with the physical anthropology of Kodiak.

Location: A. Holmes Johnson, Anchorage Municipal, Alaska Resource.

 

Jordan, Richard H.

1992 Qasqiluteng: Feasting and Ceremonialism Among the Traditional Koniag of Kodiak Island. In Anthropology of the North Pacific Rim. William W. Fitzhugh and Valerie Chaussonnet, eds. Washington, D.C. : Smithsonian Institution Press.

Describes traditional Koniag life and places artifacts from Kodiak Island in cultural context, using archeological data as well as the statements of early European observers.

Location: A. Holmes Johnson, Kodiak College, Alaska Resource, Homer Public Library.

 

Jordan, Richard H. and Richard A. Knecht.

1986 Archaeological Research on Western Kodiak Island, Alaska: The Development of Koniag Culture. In Late Prehistoric Development of Alaska's Native People. R. D. Shaw, R. K. Harritt, and D. E. Dumond, eds. Anchorage: Aurora IV, Alaska Anthropological Association. Pp. 225-306.

Formulates a view of continuity between Koniag culture and previous phases of Alutiiq prehistory.

Location: Anchorage Municipal, Alaska Resource, UAA.

 

Kemp, Kenneth L.

1981 Differential Development of Village Size Social Units. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of New Mexico.

Location: UMI Dissertation Services.

 

 

Moss, Madonna L. and Jon M. Erlandson

1992 Forts, Refuge Rocks, and Defensive Sites: The Antiquity of Warfare Along the North Pacific Coast of North America. Arctic Anthropology 29(2):73-90.

See listing under Warfare.

 

Pullar, Gordon L. and Philomena Hausler-Knecht

1990 Continuous Occupation of Larsen Bay/Uyak by Qikertarmiut. Paper prepared for the Native American Rights Fund.

This paper was written in support of Larsen Bay Natives' efforts to retrieve and rebury the human remains taken from the community by Hrdlicka* in the 1930s. It documents the continuity of occupation in Larsen Bay/Uyak in order to demonstrate that the people whose remains were excavated were ancestral to those living in that village, and throughout Kodiak Island, in the present.

Location: AEB collection.

 

Simon, James J K and Amy F. Steffian

1994 Cannibalism or Complex Mortuary Behavior: An Analysis of Patterned Variability in the Treatment of Human Remains from the Kachemak Tradition of Kodiak Island. In Reckoning With the Dead: The Larsen Bay Repatriation and the Smithsonian Institution. Tamara L Bray and Thomas W. Killion, eds. Washington, D.C. : Smithsonian Institution Press. Pp. 75-100.

Some of the bones Hrdlicka* found at the Uyak site had been modified after death, and he thought this was evidence of cannibalism. Simon and Steffian argue that cannibalism and violence alone cannot explain the complex mortuary behavior of Kachemak-era people. The authors place bone modification in a larger cultural context, suggesting that human bones might have been used as ritual objects and territorial markers.

Location: Kodiak and Anchorage libraries.

 

Urcid, Javier

1994 Cannibalism and Curated Skulls: Bone Ritualism on Kodiak Island. In Reckoning With the Dead: The Larsen Bay Repatriation and the Smithsonian Institution. Tamara L. Bray and Thomas W. Killion, eds. Washington, D.C. : Smithsonian Institution Press. Pp. 101-121.

Like Simon and Steffian (1994), this author responds to Hrdlicka's* conclusion that bone modification on Kodiak Island was evidence of cannibalism. Urcid examines drilled and cut skulls and other bones from the Uyak site. He suggest that the skulls of certain individuals were used after their deaths as ritual objects.

Location: Kodiak and Anchorage libraries.

 

Workman, William B.

1980 Continuity and Change in the Prehistoric Record from Southern Alaska. In Alaska Native Culture and History. Y. Kotani and W. Workman, eds. Senri Ethnological Series No. 4, pp. 49-101. Senri, Osaka (Japan): National Museum of Ethnology.

A comprehensive summary of the prehistory of the entire Alutiiq region, with a map of important archaeological sites. Workman proposes that this culture area be designated as the Eastern Sector of a North Pacific maritime "co-tradition." The co-tradition's branches include the traditions of the eastern Alaska Peninsula, the Kodiak Archipelago, outer Cook Inlet, and Prince William Sound.

Location: UAA, Alaska Resource, AEB.

 

Workman, William B.

1992 Life and Death in a First Millennium A.D. Gulf of Alaska Culture: The Kachemak Tradition Ceremonial Complex. In Ancient Images, Ancient Thought: The Archaeology of Ideology. S. Goldsmith, S. Garvie, D. Selin, and J. Smith, eds. Proceedings of the 23rd Annual Chacmool Conference. Calvary Archaeological Association.

Location: Not found.

 

Yarborough, Linda F.

1993 Prehistoric Use of Cetacea Species in the Northern Gulf of Alaska. Paper presented at the 20th Annual Meeting of the Alaskan Anthropological Association, Anchorage.

Summarizes ethnographic information on Alutiiq whaling. Also listed under Subsistence.

Location: Author.

 

Yesner, David R.

1992 Evolution of Subsistence in the Kachemak Tradition: Evaluating the North Pacific Maritime Stability Model. Arctic Anthropology 29(2):167-181.

Argues that some Kachemak peoples' intensive exploitation of sea mammals may have led to the demise of their culture, or at least to their dependence instead on storable resources such as salmon instead. Kodiak is discussed, among other areas.

Location: A. Holmes Johnson, UAA, AEB collection.

 

III.C. HISTORY: RUSSIAN ERA, 1784-1867

Bancroft, Hubert Howe

1959 History of Alaska, 1730-1885.

The adventures of the Russian promyshlenniki and of well-known businessmen such as Shelikhov, Baranov, and Rezanov are told in colorful fashion. Much of the book is supposed to have been ghost-written by Ivan Petroff, who lived in Kodiak in the 1880s and was Bancroft's research assistant

Location: Anchorage Municipal, Alaska Resource, Valdez Consortium.

 

Birket-Smith, Kaj

1941 Early Collections from the Pacific Eskimo Ethnological Studies, Nationalmuseets Skrifter Etnografisk Raekke 1:121-163. Copenhagen, Denmark: Gyldendal.

Describes Alutiiq items collected by Holmberg on Kodiak and in Prince William Sound.

Location: University of Washington

 

Black, Lydia, trans. and ed.

1977 The Konyag (The Inhabitants of the Island of Kodiak) by Iosaf [Bolotov] (1794-1799) and by Gideon (1804-1807) Arctic Anthropology 14(2):79-108.

Two documents by clergymen in the Russian Orthodox mission to Kodiak Contains an introduction telling what each of them were doing in Kodiak. One was Archmandrate Iosaf, the head of the original mission in 1794, and the other is Hieromonk Gideon, who was sent by the church in Moscow in 1804, probably to investigate the situation in the American colony Gideon. especially, gives detailed ethnographic information The text is difficult because of the large number of Russian and Alutiiq words. However, at the end there is a glossary of such terms, as well as a list of plants and animals referred to in the text.

Location: A. Holmes Johnson, UAA, AEB collection.

 

Black, Lydia T.

1992 The Russian Conquest of Kodiak. In Contributions to the Anthropology of Southcentral and Southwestern Alaska. Richard H. Jordan, Frederica de Laguna, and Amy F. Steffian, eds. Anthropological Papers of the University of Alaska 24 (1&2).

Location: A. Holmes Johnson, Kodiak College, Anchorage Municipal, Alaska Resource, Valdez Consortium.

 

Clark, Donald W.

1987 On a Misty Day You Can See Back to 1805: Ethnohistory and Historical Archaeology on the Southeastern Side of Kodiak Island, Alaska. Anthropological Papers of the University of Alaska 21(1-2):105-132.

Lisiansky's observations of 1805 villages are compared with the archeological remnants of these settlements. Settlement pattern is examined and discussed.

Location: UAA.

 

Crowell, Aron

1992 Postcontact Koniag Ceremonialism on Kodiak Island and the Alaska Peninsula: Evidence from the Fisher Collection. Arctic Anthropology 29(1):18-37.

Discusses ceremonial articles collected on Kodiak Island and the Alaska Peninsula by naturalist William J. Fisher between 1879 and 1885. Fisher also commissioned Chugach items. The presence of dance masks, headdresses and shaman's articles shows that traditional religious activities continued well after Russian contact.

Location: A. Holmes Johnson, UAA, AEB collection.

 

Davydov, Gavriil Ivanovich

1977 Two Voyages to Russian America, 1802-1807. Colin Bearne, trans. Richard A. Pierce, ed. Kingston, Ontario: The Limestone Press.

Customs, ceremonies, material culture, and character of the "Koniagas" as observed by a young Russian Navy officer. A much-quoted source.

Location: A. Holmes Johnson, Kodiak College, Anchorage Municipal, Alaska Resource, UAA , Valdez Consortium.

 

D'Wolf, John

1968 A Voyage to the North Pacific. Fairfield, Washington: Ye Galleon Press.

Facsimile of 1861 edition. Describes travels to Russian America and Siberia, 1804-1807. D'Wolf (1779-1872) visited Kodiak in July 1806, as described in pp. 63-66. He also visited Kukak on the Alaska Peninsula.

Location: A. Holmes Johnson, Anchorage Municipal, UAA, Valdez Consortium.

 

Fedorova, Svetlana G

1973 The Russian Population in Alaska and California: Late 18th Century - 1867. Richard A. Pierce and Alton S. Donnelly, trans. and ed. Kingston, Ontario: The Limestone Press.

Emphasis on labor relations in the colony. Among other things. Fedorova discusses the conditions of the large population of creoles in Russian America. Sporadic references to Kodiak, called Kad'iak.

Location: A. Holmes Johnson, Kodiak College, Anchorage Municipal, UAA, Valdez Consortium.

 

Gibson, James R.

1976a Imperial Russia in Frontier America: The Changing Geography of Supply in Russian America, 1784-1867. New York: Oxford University Press.

Analysis of lines of supply to Russian America, as well as attempts at establishing agriculture in Alaska.

Location: Anchorage Municipal, UAA, Valdez Consortium.

 

Gibson, James R.

1976b Russian Sources for the Ethnohistory of the Pacific Coast of North America in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries. Western Canadian Journal of Anthropology 6(1):91-115

Location: Not found.

 

Gideon, Hieromonk

1989 The Round the World Voyage of Hieromonk Gideon, 1803-1809. Lydia T. Black, trans. Richard A. Pierce, ed. Fairbanks, Alaska: The Limestone Press.

Contains much of the same as Black 1977. Also included is correspondence between Gideon and the church synod, and between Russian American Company officers and the clergy of the Kadiak Spiritual Mission.

Location: A. Holmes Johnson, Kodiak College, Anchorage Municipal, Alaska Resource, UAA.

 

Golovnin, Pavel Nikolaevich

1979 The End of Russian America: Captain P. N. Golovnin's Last Report, 1862. Basil Dmytryshyn and E. A. P. Crownhart-Vaughan, trans. and ed. Portland: Oregon Historical Society.

Notes and records of Russia's Alaska colony, including description of conditions, expenditures, composition of sea hunting parties, summary of trade in furs, and population censuses. Golovnin announces the Russian company's intention to develop commercial fishing at Karluk.

Location: A. Holmes Johnson, Kodiak College, Anchorage Municipal, Alaska Resource, UAA, Homer Public Library, Valdez Consortium.

 

Golovnin, Vasilii M.

1985 Memorandum of Captain 2nd Rank Golovnin on the Condition of the Aleuts in the Settlements of the Russian American Company and on its Promyshlenniki. Katherine Arndt, trans. and ed. Alaska History 1(2):59-71.

Reports on investigations in 1817 of abuses of Natives in the colony, at Kodiak and elsewhere. Golovnin requested information from "the monk German" (now St. Herman). This, plus the testimony of Natives and company promyshlenniki, led him to understand that overwork and cruelty were commonplace in the Russian colony, leading to the deaths of many Natives.

Location: UAA, AEB collection

 

Gormly, Mary

1977 Early Culture Contact on the Northwest Coast, 1774-1795: Analysis of Spanish Source Material Northwest Anthropological Research Notes 11(1):1-80.

Describes Spanish and Mexican manuscripts, including rare publications. Contains many obscure references for Kodiak, Prince William Sound, and Cook Inlet.

Location: Alaska State Library.

 

Hassen, Harold

1978 The Effect of European and American Contact on the Chugach Eskimo of Prince William Sound, Alaska, 1741-1930. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee.

Proposes a methodology for developing a general explanatory model for the post-contact period in southern Alaska. Also listed under History: American Era.

Location: Alaska Resource.

 

Holmberg, H. J.

1985 Holmberg's Ethnographic Sketches. M. W. Falk, ed. Fritz Jaensch, trans. Rasmuson Library Historical Translation Series, 1. Fairbanks: University of Alaska Press.

The main ethnographic section is in Part One, chapter entitled "The Tlingits and Koniags." The chapter "Development of the Russian American Company," also in Part One, contains some first-hand notes by Holmberg concerning historic personalities on Kodiak. Koniags are described on pp. 35-61. Holmberg depends heavily on Davydov's description of his trip in 1851; see Davydov 1977.

Location: A. Holmes Johnson, Kodiak College, Anchorage Municipal, Alaska Resource, UAA, Homer Public Library, Valdez Consortium.

 

Knecht, Richard A. and Richard H. Jordan

1985 Nunakakhnak: An Historic Period Koniag Village in Karluk, Kodiak Island, Alaska. Arctic Anthropology 22(2): 17-35.

The authors analyze findings from a nineteenth century site in Karluk, using historical as well as archeological data, in order to understand the process of culture change on Kodiak Island. The site contained European objects such as ceramics, along with traditional items. Also listed under Russian Era.

Location: UAA library, AEB collection.

 

Liapunova, Roza G.

1994 Eskimo Masks from Kodiak Island in the Collections of the Peter the Great Museum of Anthropology and Ethnography, St. Petersburg. In Anthropology of the North Pacific Rim. William W. Fitzhugh and Valerie Chaussonnet, eds. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press. Pp. 175-203.

Tells of the spiritual and artistic qualities of Kodiak masks, and their place in traditional Koniag religious ceremonies. Some of the masks in this collection were used in a ritual play known as the "six-act mystery."

Location: A. Holmes Johnson, Kodiak College, Alaska Resource, Homer Public Library.

 

Lisiansky, Urey

1968 Voyage Round the World in the Years 1803, 1804, 1805, and 1806. New York: N. Israel.

For Kodiak see Chapter IX, Chapter X, and Appendix III (Vocabulary). This is one of the most valuable ethnographic sources on the Koniags. It describes the author's interactions with Natives on Kodiak Island.

Location: Anchorage Municipal, UAA.

 

Merck, Carl H

1980 Siberia and Northwestern America 1788-1792: The Journal of Carl Heinrich Merck, Naturalist with the Russian Scientific Expedition Led by Captains Joseph Billings and Gavril Sarychev. Kingston, Ontario: The Limestone Press.

Merck's is one of the most important and earliest accounts of Kodiak and the Koniags; includes also a short report by Captain Billings. Merck tells of dances, appearance and dress, diet, customs and games of Kodiak Natives, and also mentions Chugach Natives. As a naturalist, he was particularly interested in the flora and fauna of the areas he visited.

Location: A. Holmes Johnson, Kodiak College, Anchorage Municipal, Alaska Resource, UAA, Valdez Consortium.

 

National Board of Antiquities (Finland)

1988 Alaska, Russian America. Exhibit catalog. Helsinki, Finland: National Board of Antiquities.

Beautiful photographs of Alutiiq clothing, with simple text.

Location: KANA Cultural Heritage Center

 

Naughton, Sharon Cissna

1978 Samovars in Kodiak: Two Cultures Met. Kodiak, Alaska: Kodiak Historical Society.

Location: A. Holmes Johnson, Kodiak College, UAA.

 

Oswalt, Wendell

1979 Eskimos and Explorers. Novato, California: Chandler and Sharp.

Pp. 233-272 deal with Alaskan Yuit, including Koniag and Chugach. Drawing on secondary sources, Oswalt relies heavily on Davydov (1977) and Birket-Smith (1953).

Location: A. Holmes Johnson, Kodiak College, Anchorage Municipal, Alaska Resource, UAA, Homer Public Library, Valdez Consortium.

 

Pierce, Richard A., ed.

1978 The Russian Orthodox Religious Mission to America. Colin Bearne, trans. Kingston, Ontario: Limestone .

Contain's Gedeon's (Gideon's) ethnographic notes (which have also been translated by Lydia Black (See Black 1977 and Gideon 1979) and other primary source material, notably about the life of "the monk German," now known as Saint Herman.

Location: A. Holmes Johnson, Kodiak College, Anchorage Municipal, Alaska Resource, UAA, Valdez Consortium.

 

Pierce, Richard A.

1990 Russian America: A Biographical Dictionary. Kingston: Limestone Press.

A major historical source, describing activities and often-surprising details of the lives of various well-known figures in Russian America.

Location: A. Holmes Johnson, Kodiak College, Anchorage Municipal, Alaska Resource, UAA, Homer Public Library, Valdez Consortium.

 

Pinart, Alphonse

1871-72 Field Notes from the Kodiak Island Region. Manuscript.

See listing under Religion, Art, and Folklore.

 

Shelikhov, Grigorii I.

1981 A Voyage to America 1783-1786. Marina Ramsay, trans. Richard A. Pierce, ed. Kingston, Ontario: The Limestone Press.

Shelikhov's activities in Kodiak, including the establishment of a Russian post at Three Saints Bay in 1784, appear on pp. 36-57. Shelikhov was prone to exaggeration in his reports. The introduction tells of Shelikhov's life and gives chilling details of his conquest of Alutiiq people.

Location: A. Holmes Johnson, Kodiak College, Anchorage Municipal, UAA, Valdez Consortium.

 

Smith, Barbara S.

1980 Orthodoxy and Native Americans: The Alaskan Mission. Syosset, New York: St. Vladimir's Seminary press.

Emphasizes that Native leadership has always been an important and necessary part of the Russian Orthodox church in Alaska. Also listed under Religion and Mythology.

Location: Anchorage Municipal.

 

Smith, Barbara S. and Redmond J. Barnett, eds.

1990 Russian America: The Forgotten Frontier. Tacoma: Washington State Historical Society.

The book accompanies a museum exhibition. It is an edited volume with sections on exploration and discovery, trade and diplomacy, life in Russian America, Russians and Native Americans, and Russia's legacy in North America. Does not pertain specifically to Kodiak, but has occasional references to the island, such as Ty L. Dilliplane's description of the Russian-built Middle Bay brick kiln.

Location: A. Holmes Johnson, Anchorage Municipal, UAA.

 

Stevens, Gary

1990 The Woody Island Ice Company. In Russia in North America: Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Russian America, Sitka, Alaska, August 19-22, 1987. Richard A. Pierce, ed. Kingston: Limestone 192-212.

The ice company was operated between 1853 and 1979, first by Russians, then by Americans. Also listed under History: American Era.

Location: A. Holmes Johnson, Kodiak College, Anchorage Municipal, Alaska Resource, UAA, Homer Public Library.

 

Tikhmenev, Petr Alexandrovich

1978 A History of the Russian-American Company. Richard A. Pierce and A. S. Donnelly, trans. and ed. Seattle: University of Washington Press.

Tikhmenev was a Russian naval officer who in 1857 was given the task of writing a history of the Russian-American Company. Chapter 20, "Some Statistical and Ethnographical Data on the Russian Colonies." tells of the land and sea, flora and fauna of Russian America as well as brief descriptions of Native peoples. For the Alutiiq culture area, Tikhmenev quotes Davydov and other well-known sources.

Location: A. Holmes Johnson, Anchorage Municipal, Alaska Resource, UAA, Valdez Consortium.

 

Tikhmenev, Petr Alexandrovich

1979 A History of the Russian-American Company, Vol 2: Documents. Dmitri Krenov, trans. Richard A. Pierce and Alton S. Donnelly, eds. Kingston, Ontario: The Limestone Press.

Correspondence of Baranov, Shelikhov, and other notable Russians. Baranov's interactions with Chugach Natives, l-6, 59-77. Response from the Kodiak office of the Russian-American Company to suspicions of mistreatment of Natives, pp. 132-133.

Location: Kodiak College, UAA.

 

Sister Victoria

1974 The Russian Experience. In The Native, Russian and American Experiences of the Kenai Area of Alaska. James C. Hornaday, ed. Prepared for the Conference on Kenai Area History, Kenai Central High School, Kenai, Alaska, November 7-8, 1974. Pp. 45-76.

This paper focuses on Kenai but makes numerous references to Kodiak. Activities of the Russian-American company and of Russian Orthodox clergymen in the Kenai area are described.

Location: UAA, Homer Public Library, AEB collection.

 

Zerries, Otto and Jean-Loup Rousselot

1978 Die Eskimo. Herausgegeben vom Staatlichen Museum fur Volkerkunde. Munich: Das Museum.

Specimens from the Eskimo Collection of the German State Museum of Ethnography. The material items were collected by the Krusenstern expedition (1803-1807); some are attributed to the Leuchtenberg collection and predate 1839. Items from Kodiak Island or Prince William Sound include a harpoon arrow, fish hooks, a line of caribou sinew, an adze, baskets, a work pouch, a cap, a headdress, a gut raincoat, puffin bill rattles, a wooden platter, and horn ladles. The article is obscure and not in English, but illustrates many Alutiiq artifacts that most American readers would never see otherwise.

Location: Alaska State Library and UAF.

III.D. HISTORY: AMERICAN ERA, 1868-1964

Anonymous

1943 Reindeer report for all Alaska.

Includes a 1921 contract with Simeon Agnot, reindeer apprentice at Alitak.

Location: KANA Cultural Heritage Center files.

 

Bailey, Marie

1949 Old Harbor. Alaska Sportsman 15(4):6-11, 38-40.

The author and her husband were teachers in Old Harbor. The article mentions several residents, including Chief Mike Inga and the Rolf Christiansen family. It describes hunting (especially bear hunting), fishing, and plant-gathering activities, as well as Christmas celebrations in the village. There are 18 photographs.

Location: AEB collection, A. Holmes Johnson, Anchorage Municipal, Alaska Resource.

 

Bean, Tarleton H.

1891 Report on the Salmon and Salmon Rivers of Alaska. In Bulletin of the U.S. Fish Commission Vol. 9 (1889). Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office. Pp. 165-208.

With maps and plates; a good source on Kodiak.

Location: Anchorage Municipal, UAA.

 

Befu, Harumi

1971 Ethnographic Sketch of Old Harbor. Kodiak: An Eskimo Village. Arctic Anthropology 6(2):29-42.

Based on research in 1960, this report concentrates on economics, kinship, religion, and education. The author makes the point that although Old Harbor residents are highly involved in the Western economic system, they have not adopted American values.

Location: UAA library on microfilm.

 

Birket-Smith, Kaj

1953 The Chugach Eskimo. Nationalmuseets Publikationsford, Ethnographisk Raekke 6. Copenhagen.

The research for this monograph was conducted in 1933. Has biographical notes on the author's major Chugach consultants, one of whom still remembered the Russian colonial era. Information on hunting, transportation, division of labor, kinship, rites of passage, relations with other groups (especially the Koniag), religion, and folklore. Birket-Smith says most shamans were female (p. 116), but the stories in this volume about famous shamans are exclusively about men. There is a Chugach vocabulary.

Location: Anchorage Municipal, UAA.

 

Borroughs, John

1904 Far and Near. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

Pp. 1-129 contain chapters pertaining to Kodiak.

Location: Anchorage Municipal.

 

Bureau of Indian Affairs

1916 Annual Report Akhiok School. National Archives and Records Service. Bureau of Indian Affairs record group, drawer 143, file no. 357, folder 1916-1917 Akhiok School.

24 pp. handwritten manuscript. Additional annual reports for the Akhiok and other schools are present but the 1916 report is noteworthy for its length and commentary on conditions.

Location: National Archives, Anchorage.

 

Bureau of Indian Affairs

1934-1950 Village school descriptions, health records, food survey, and census data Afognak, Aiaktalik, Alitak, Chenega, Chignik, Cordova, English Bay, Kaguyak, Karluk, Larsen Bay, Old Harbor, Ouzinkie, Perryville, Port Graham, Tatitlek, Woody Island.

Location: KANA Archives and National Archives, Anchorage.

 

Colby, Merle

1939 A Guide to Alaska: Last American Frontier. Federal Writers Project American Guide Series. New York: MacMillan.

Customs of the Chugachmiut, including recipes for Chugach "love potions" made of herbs, seal oil, and dried and powdered jellyfish, are on pp. 224-5. Ellamar and "Tatilek" are mentioned on p. 231. On p. 317 we learn that Seldovia's name is derived from "seldovoi," the for herring. Also mentioned on pp. 319 are Afognak, Kodiak Island, and the Alaska Peninsula villages of Kanatak, Chignik, Perryville, King Cove, and Unga.

Location: A. Holmes Johnson, Kodiak College, Anchorage Municipal, Alaska Resource, UAA, Homer Public Library, Valdez Consortium.

 

Curtiss, Marion

1948 Stricken Village. Public Health Nursing. December.

Account of an epidemic at Old Harbor.

Location: Volume not at UAA library, but this journal is in the holdings of Washington State University and Western Washington University.

 

Erskine, Wilson Fiske

1960 White Water: An Alaskan Adventure. London: Abelard-Schuman.

Life in Kodiak as the son of a whaler and later, a fishing captain. Erskine left Kodiak with his wife after World War II. He was upset because the onslaught of population during the war had damaged the area; for example, he thought the Buskin River had been ruined as a fishing area.

Location: A. Holmes Johnson, Kodiak College, Anchorage Municipal, UAA, Homer Public Library, Valdez Consortium.

 

Griggs, R. F.

1914 Observations on the Edge of the Forest in the Kodiak Region of Alaska. Torrey Botanical Club Bulletin 41(7):381 385. Contributions from the Botany Department of Ohio State University No. 81.

Interesting, since the forest has continued to expand southward since 1914 when this report was published.

Location: Not found.

 

Halferty, Z. T.

1924 Historic Kodiak. The Pathfinder 6(6):4-5, 33-38. Valdez: Pioneers of Alaska.

Reprinted in the Kodiak Daily Mirror, December 28, 1971.

Location: Anchorage Municipal.

 

Hall, George L.

1945 Sometime Again (E'lot Neg-oo-soo-li). Seattle: Superior Publishing Company.

Impressions of Alaska by an Army officer stationed there during World War II. "War Comes to Kodiak" is In Chapter 3 (pp. 28-48). After Chapter 5 (p. 62) the narrator is no longer in Kodiak.

Location: A. Holmes Johnson, Kodiak College, Anchorage Municipal, UAA, Homer Public Library, Valdez Consortium.

 

Harvey, Lola

1991 Derevnia's Daughters: Saga of an Alaskan Village Manhattan, Kansas: Sunflower University Press.

Collective biography of the Von Scheele family of Afognak village.

Location: A. Holmes Johnson, Kodiak College, UAA, Homer Public Library, Valdez Consortium.

 

Hassen, Harold

1978 The Effect of European and American Contact on the Chugach Eskimo of Prince William Sound, Alaska, 1741-1930 Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee.

See listing under History: Russian Era.

 

Heizer, Robert F.

1952 Notes on Koniag Material Culture.Anthropological Papers of the University of Alaska 1(1):11-24.

Describes items in a collection at the University of California Museum of Anthropology, obtained from the Alaska Commercial Company. Heizer notes that there are Northwest Coast influences present in Kodiak.

Location: UAA, AEB collection

 

Hinckley, Theodore C. and Caryl, eds.

1966 Ivan Petroff's Journal of a Trip to Alaska in 1878. Journal of the West 5(1):25-70.

Biographical notes on this colorful figure, known to be an exaggerator and outright liar. Petroff was a census taker in the 1880 and 1890 censuses, and worked as a deputy collector at Kodiak from 1883 to 1888. In 1892 he was discharged for falsifying documents. He reported in his journal that he was given a mummy from Nuchek. He also discusses wars between Koniags and Aleuts.

Location: UAA library, AEB collection.

 

Huggins, Eli Lundy

1981 Kodiak and Afognak Life, 1868-1870. Richard A. Pierce, ed. Kingston, Ontario: Limestone Press.

A young Army lieutenant's impressions of Kodiak, including observations on the character of the "Kadiaks" and Creoles," when he was stationed there in the two years immediately following the sale of Alaska to the United States.

Location: A. Holmes Johnson, Kodiak College, Anchorage Municipal, Alaska Resource, UAA, Homer Public Library, Valdez Consortium.

 

Jackson, Sheldon

1893a Education in Alaska: 1889-90. Reprint of Chapter 17 of the Report of the Commissioner of Education for 1889-90. Whole No. 191. Washington: Government Printing Office. Pp. 1245-1300.

Brief report on conditions on Kodiak p. 1248; narrative of visit to Kodiak, p. 1295.

Location: National Archives, Anchorage.

 

Jackson, Sheldon

1893b Education in Alaska: 1890-91. Reprint of Chapter 25 of the Report of the Commissioner of Education for 1890-91. Whole No. 203. Washington: Government Printing Office. Pp. 923-960.

Brief report on Kodiak, Afognak and Karluk schools, p. 929.

Location: National Archives, Anchorage.

 

Jackson, Sheldon

1894 Education in Alaska: 1891-92. Reprint of Chapter 28 of the Report of the Commissioner of Education for 1891-92. Whole No. 214. Washington: Government Printing Office. Pp. 873-892.

Brief report on schools in Afognak and elsewhere in the "Kadiak District," p. 877. Kodiak pupils are said to be doing well and to love to sing.

Location: Anchorage Municipal and National Archives, Anchorage.

 

Jackson, Sheldon

1896a Education in Alaska: 1893-94. Reprint of Chapter 12 of the Report of the Commissioner of Education for 1893-94. Whole No. 229. Washington: Government Printing Office. Pp. 1451-1492.

Brief statement on Kodiak District schools (p. 1461) and narrative of tour of Kodiak area (pp. 480-481) with a summary of historical data from published sources.

Location: National Archives, Anchorage.

 

Jackson, Sheldon

1896b Education in Alaska: 1894-95. Reprint of Chapter 33 of the Report of the Commissioner of Education for 1894-95. Whole No. 231. Washington: Government Printing Office Pp. 1424-1455.

Brief description of Kodiak and Afognak schools and Woody Island Mission.

Location: National Archives, Anchorage.

 

Jackson, Sheldon

1898 Education in Alaska: 1896-97. Reprint of Chapter 35 of the Report of the Commissioner of Education for 1896-97. Whole No. 246. Washington: Government Printing Office. Pp. 1601-1646.

History of Baptist mission in Kodiak area on pp. 1622-23, conditions at Kodiak and Karluk discussed pp. 1606-07.

Location: National Archives, Anchorage.

 

Jackson, Sheldon

1899 Education in Alaska: 1897-98. Reprint of Chapters 31 and 32 of the Report of the Commissioner of Education for 1897-98. Whole No. 267. Washington: Government Printing Office. Pp. 1373-1432.

Brief report on Kodiak and Woody Island schools, pp. 1376-77.

Location: National Archives, Anchorage.

 

Kutchin, Howard

1903 Report on the Salmon Fisheries of Alaska, 1902. Washington: Government Printing Office.

Kutchin was a "Special Agent" of the U.S. Department of Fisheries who traveled in 1902 to inspect Alaskan canneries, including Karluk, Uyak (near the present-day village of Larsen Bay), Alitak (near Akhiok), and Chignik. On pp. 55-7 he discusses the plight of Natives living on Afognak Island, who were forbidden to sell salmon commercially. Afognak Island had been declared a government reservation in order to start a salmon hatchery there, but that project had been abandoned. Kutchin recommended that a private or cooperative hatchery be licensed, apparently to provide employment and future salmon stocks for the people of Afognak.

Location: UAA. Pp.55-57 are in AEB collection.

 

McKeown, Martha F.

1960 The Trail Led North: Monte Hawthorne's Story. Portland, Oregon: Binfords and Mort.)

Recollections of the author's uncle, who worked in and built canneries in Chignik and Karluk around 1890. Chapter 5, pp. 51-60, is entitled, "The Russian Indians of Kodiak Island." Also contains stories of the Chinese laborers in Alaskan canneries.

Location: A. Holmes Johnson, Anchorage Municipal, UAA , Homer Public Library, Valdez Consortium.

 

Moser, Jefferson F.

1899 The Salmon and Salmon Fisheries of Alaska. Report of the operations of the U.S. Fish Commission Steamer Albatross for the Year Ending June 30, 1898. U.S. Fish Commission Bulletin for 1898, Vol. 18. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office. Pp. 1-178.

Kodiak and Chignik canneries are described on pp. 144-171.

Location: UAA on impossible-to-read microfilm.

 

Opheim, Edward N., Sr.

1976 The Real Crust on Sourdoughs. Alaska 42(11):16-18, 66-68.

Stories about colorful characters living on Spruce Island (north of Kodiak) in the early twentieth century.

Location: UAA, AEB collection.

 

Opheim, Edward N., Sr.

1977 How I Made No Money Raising Foxes. Alaska 43(6):23-25, 87.

Adventures in the 1940s raising blue foxes near Ouzinkie, by a man of self-described Norwegian, Russian, Aleut and Irish descent.

Location: UAA, AEB collection.

 

Opheim, Edward N., Sr.

1981 Old Mike of Monk's Lagoon. Vantage Press.

Location: A. Holmes Johnson, Kodiak College, UAA.

 

Opheim, Edward N., Sr.

1884 Report on the Population, Industries, and Resources of Alaska. Washington: Department of Interior, Census Office, Tenth Census.

Contains ethnographic sketches derived largely from published sources, and considerable raw and descriptive data. The "Kadiak District," pp. 24-29, includes communities in the Kodiak Archipelago, Lower Cook Inlet, Alaska Peninsula, and Prince William Sound, many of which still exist today. The "Kaniagmute" and "Chugachmute" are described on pp. 136-146.

Location: A. Holmes Johnson, Anchorage Municipal, UAA.

 

Porter, Robert P.

1893 Report on the Population and Resources of Alaska at the Eleventh Census: 1890. Department of the Interior, Census Office. Washington: Government Printing Office.

Report on the "Kadiak District" is pp. 65-80.

Location: AEB collection.

 

Roppel, Patricia

1986 Salmon from Kodiak: A History of the Salmon Fishery of Kodiak, Alaska. Alaska Historical Commission Studies in History No. 216.

Includes discussion of Kodiak area Natives' involvement in the salmon fishing industry. Good accounts of canneries in Karluk, Larsen Bay, Alitak, Afognak, and Ouzinkie.

Location: A. Holmes Johnson, Kodiak College, Alaska Resource, UAA, Homer Public Library, Valdez Consortium.

 

Roscoe, Fred

1992 From Humboldt to Kodiak, 1886-1895: Recollections of a Frontier Childhood and the Founding of the First American School and the Baptist Mission at Kodiak, Alaska. Stanley N. Roscoe, ed. Kingston, Ontario: The Limestone Press.

Memories from the author's childhood of the Kodiak Baptist Mission at Woody Island. Roscoe's parents, Ida and Ernest Roscoe, were recruited by Sheldon Jackson to found the orphanage and school.

Location: A. Holmes Johnson, Kodiak College, Anchorage Municipal, UAA.

 

Stevens, Gary

1990 The Woody Island Ice Company. In Russia in North America: Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Russian America, Sitka, Alaska, August 19-22, 1987. Richard A. Pierce, ed. Kingston: Limestone Press. Pp. 192-212.

See listing under History: Russian Era.

 

Stover, Paul H. "Smokey"

1984 The Retired Failure. Bryn Mawr: Dorrance & Co. First published in l976.

Amusing escapades of the late author, a well-known figure in Kodiak. Although Natives are mentioned, little information can be gleaned about Alutiiq culture.

Location: A. Holmes Johnson, Kodiak College, Anchorage Municipal, UAA, Valdez Consortium.

 

Will, Anne M.

1981 A History of the City of Kodiak. Anchorage: Alaska Historical Commission.

Mainly deals with non-Natives. Also listed under Current Ethnography.

Location: Alaska Resource

 

Williamson, Harriet

1941 Kodiak Grows Up. Alaska Sportsman 7(7):14-15, 22-24.

Makes the dubious assertion that the name "Kodiak" is derived from "kyak" in reference to the kayaks there. The author describes Kodiak in 1940. As she wrote, big changes were beginning to come over Kodiak in preparation for the military installment that would be there until the end of World War II. The population was swelling, and there were new construction projects.

Location: UAA library, AEB collection

 

Woodworth, Jim

1958 The Kodiak Bear. Harrisburg, Pennsylvania: The Stackpole Company.

Adventures of a professional bear guide. The author is non-Native but does mention local Alutiiq people.

Location: A. Holmes Johnson, Anchorage Municipal, UAA, Valdez Consortium.

III.E. THE 1912 MOUNT KATMAI ERUPTION

Davis, Nancy Yaw

1984 Contemporary Pacific Eskimo. In Handbook of North American Indians: Arctic. Vol. 5. D. Damas, ed. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution. Pp. 198-204.

See listing under General.

 

Erskine, Wilson Fiske

1962 Katmai, a True Narrative. New York: Abelard-Schuman.

Narrative of the 1912 Katmai eruption and its effect on the town of Kodiak. Taken from diaries and logs of eyewitnesses including the author's parents.

Location: A. Holmes Johnson, Anchorage Municipal, Alaska Resource, UAA.

 

Gilman, Isabel Ambler

1928 Alaska: The American Northland. Yonkers-on-Hudson, New York: World Book Company.

"The Ashes of Kodiak," a dramatic description of the Mount Katmai eruption of 1912, is on pp. 310-317.

Location: UAA.

 

Griggs, Robert Fiske

1922 The Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes. National Geographic Society.

A study of the 1912 Mount Katmai eruption. Records the experiences of residents of Kodiak, Katmai village, and elsewhere. Contains many pictures, especially of the ash fall in Kodiak.

Location: A. Holmes Johnson, Kodiak College, Anchorage Municipal, Alaska Resource, UAA, Valdez Consortium.

 

Kodiak Historical Society

1976 Ashes and Water. Kodiak: Page Photo.

Contains an eyewitness account of the 1912 Katmai eruption by Hildred D. Erskine.

Location: Anchorage Municipal, UAA.

 

Harvey, Lola

1991 Derevnia's Daughters: Saga of an Alaskan Village. Manhatten, Kansas: Sunflower University Press.

One chapter deals with temporary relocation of Alaska Peninsula residents to Afognak after the Mount Katmai eruption. See listing under History: American Era.

 

Partnow, Patricia

1993 Alutiiq Ethnicity. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Alaska.

Focus on the story and collactive experience of the 1912 Mount Katmai eruption. See listing under Current Ethnography.

Location: AEB Collection.

III.F. THE 1964 EARTHQUAKE AND TSUNAMI

Davis, Nancy Yaw

1970 The Role of the Russian Orthodox Church In Five Pacific Eskimo Villages as Revealed by the Earthquake. The Great Alaska Earthquake, Human Ecology Volume. Washington: National Research Council. Pp. 125-145.

The degree and quality of involvement of Alutiiq villages in the Russian Orthodox church is used as a basis for evaluating their responses to the 1964 earthquake and tsunami.

Location: A. Holmes Johnson, Kodiak College, Anchorage Municipal, Alaska Resource, UAA, Valdez Consortium.

 

Davis, Nancy Yaw

1971 The Effects of the 1964 Earthquake, Tsunami, and Resettlement on Two Koniag Eskimo Villages. Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Washington.

The two villages studied were Kaguyak and Old Harbor, on Kodiak Island. Kaguyak was destroyed and its residents relocated to Akhiok. Old Harbor was rebuilt. The author describes the events of the disaster and its aftermath, and examines cultural change in the villages as a result of both the natural disaster and interaction with other villagers and with government agencies after the earthquake and tsunami.

Location: A. Holmes Johnson, Alaska Resource, UAA.

 

Davis, Nancy Yaw

1984 Contemporary Pacific Eskimo. In Handbook of North American Indians: Arctic. Vol. 5. D. Damas, ed. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution. Pp. 198-204.

See listing under General.

 

Davis, Nancy Yaw

1986a Earthquake, Tsunami, Resettlement and Survival in Two North Pacific Alaskan Native Villages. In Natural Disasters and Cultural Responses. Anthony Oliver-Smith, ed. Studies in Third World Societies Publication No 36. Pp. 123-154.

Disaster and cultural response in Old Harbor and Kaguyak. The author discusses the implications of events occurring before, during, and after the 1964 earthquake and tsunami, including the resettlement of Kaguyak residents in nearby Akhiok.

Location: AEB collection.

 

Kachadoorian, Reuben and George Plafker

1967 Effects of the Earthquake of March 27, 1964 on the Communities of Kodiak and Nearby Islands. Geological Survey Professional Paper 542-F. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office.

Photographs and description of damages from the earthquake and tsunami in Kodiak, Afognak, "Uzinki" (Ouzinkie). Old Harbor, and Kaguyak. Akhiok, Karluk, and Larsen Bay are mentioned, but were seen as relatively unaffected.

Location: A. Holmes Johnson, Anchorage Municipal, Alaska Resource, UAA, Valdez Consortium.

 

Kodiak Historical Society

1976 Ashes and Water. Kodiak: Page Photo.

Contains a facsimile of a letter from "Betty" about the 1964 earthquake and tsunami.

Location: UAA.

 

Opheim, Edward N., Sr.

1984 Waves of Destruction. Alaska 50(3):30-32, 75.

Experiences at Pleasant Harbor, on Spruce Island near the village of Ouzinkie, during and following 1964 earthquake and tsunami.

Location: UAA.

 

Plafker, George, Reuben Kachadoorian, Edwin B. Eckel, and Lawrence R. Mayo

1969 Effects of the Earthquake of March 27, 1964 on Various Communities. Geological Survey Professional Paper 542-G. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office.

Tells of damages caused by the earthquake and tsunami in various communities in Prince William Sound and Cook Inlet. Communities with Alutiiq populations include Chenega, Tatitlek, Cordova, English Bay, Port Graham, and Seldovia.

Location: A. Holmes Johnson, Anchorage Municipal, Alaska Resource, UAA, Valdez Consortium.

III.G. CURRENT ETHNOGRAPHY, 1965-PRESENT

Barsh, Russel Lawrence

1985 Karluk River Study. Kodiak: Kodiak Area Native Association.

Pages 27-66 pertain to human uses of the area under study. The author relies chiefly on secondary sources to discuss the history of fishing on the Karluk River, present-day commercial, subsistence, and recreational uses, and prospects for economic development.

Location: AEB collection.

 

Braund, Stephen R. and S. R. Behnke

1979 Lower Cook Inlet Sociocultural Systems Analysis. Alaska OCS Socioeconomic Studies Program Technical Report No. 47. Minerals Management Service. Anchorage: U.S. Department of Interior.

A report prepared for the Department of the Interior's Alaska Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) program to study the potential effects of oil development. Impact scenarios include the "base case," exploration only, high find, and medium find. The Alutiiq communities of Port Graham and English Bay (now Nanwalek) are part of the study.

Location: AEB collection.

 

Buck, Eugene H., William J. Wilson, Larry S. Lau, Caedmon Liburd, and Harold W. Searby

1975 Kadyak: A Background for Living. Anchorage: Arctic Environmental and Data Center.

The stated purpose of this document is to "interpret the environment of the Kodiak Island Group and adjacent waters, including Chirikof Island, and explain the processes which determine resource occurrence and affect resource use" (p. 2). It is intended to provide Kodiak people with knowledge upon which resource decisions can be based. A section on the history of the Kodiak area includes the Koniag, Russian and United States eras (pp. 38-43). There are chapters on natural disasters, safe navigation, resource utilization, and environmental quality. Koniag navigation is discussed on pp. 146-147.

Location: A. Holmes Johnson, Kodiak College, Anchorage Municipal, Alaska Resource, UAA, Valdez Consortium.

 

Clark, Marvin H., Jr.

1980 Pinnell and Talifson: Last of the Great Brown Bear Men. Anchorage: Great Northwest Publishing and Distribution Co.

An admiring book about two well-known bear guides who lived and worked at Olga Bay on the south end of Kodiak Island from 1938 to the 1980s.

Location: A. Holmes Johnson, Kodiak College, Anchorage Municipal, Alaska Resource, UAA, Valdez Consortium.

 

Cordova High School Discovery Program

1980 Out of Our Time: Early Native Life, Railroad and Mining Days, Fish Tales, Earthquake, Fire.

One of several programs implemented in the early 1980s in the region. High school students interviewed local residents on the history and folklore of the area.

Location: Valdez Consortium.

 

Davis, Nancy Yaw

1976 Steps Toward Understanding Rapid Culture Change in Native Rural Alaska. Commission Study 16. Joint Federal-State Land Use Planning Commission for Alaska.

A survey was conducted in Old Harbor in 1975 to test a methodology for understanding cultural change.

Location: Anchorage Municipal, Alaska Resource, UAA, AEB collection.

 

Davis, Nancy Yaw

1977 Chapter 1: An Historical Overview. In Ggwangkumtenek Sungcarluta. Gregg Brelsford, ed. Anchorage: North Pacific Rim.

Includes prehistory and history, along with sketches of the Chugach communities of Seward, Cordova, Valdez, Tatitlek, Port Graham, and English Bay. There are further notes on health history.

Location: AEB collection.

 

Davis, Nancy Yaw

1978 Interview with Karl Armstrong, 11/7/78

Discussion centers on commercial fisheries in Kodiak.

Location: KANA Cultural Heritage Center files.

 

Davis, Nancy Yaw

1979 Kodiak Native Sociocultural Impacts. Western Gulf of Alaska. Petroleum Development Scenarios Alaska OCS Socioeconomic Studies Program Technical Report No. 41. Anchorage: U.S. Department of Interior.

Part of a series commissioned by the Department of the Interior's Alaska Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) program to study potential sociocultural impacts of oil exploration and development. Report gives an overview of past changes and contemporary issues in Kodiak area communities. There is a description of Kodiak Native organizations. Kodiak area communities are divided into three geographically and socioculturally distinct groups: Southern (Akhiok and Old Harbor), Northern (Ouzinkie and Port Lions) and Western (Larsen Bay and Karluk). There is also a section on the city of Kodiak. The author projects social change scenarios, both as a result of OCS development and from other factors.

Location: AEB collection.

 

Davis, Nancy Yaw

1986b A Sociocultural Description of Small Communities in the Kodiak/Shumagin Region. OCS Technical Report No. 121, Minerals Management Service Anchorage: Cultural Dynamics, Ltd.

Eleven villages are characterized, six in the Kodiak area and five in the Chignik region on the south coast of the Alaska Peninsula Each village description includes information on history, social organization, political organization, economic organization, values, and respondents' views on oil development.

Location: AEB collection.

 

Davis, Nancy Yaw

1987 English Bay: History and Continuity Paper prepared for Alaska Legal Services.

History of the village, focusing on its form of government.

Location: AEB collection.

 

Eliot, John L.

1993 Kodiak, Alaska's Island Refuge. National Geographic, November. Pp. 35-58.

Special focus on bears and the community of Old Harbor.

Location: All libraries, AEB collection.

 

Endter-Wada, Joanna, Rachel Mason, Jon Hofmeister, and Joanne Mulcahy

1992 The Kodiak Region. In Social Indicators Study of Alaskan Coastal Villages. Key Informant Summaries. Vol. 2: Schedule B Regions. Alaska OCS Region Draft Technical Report No. 152. Anchorage: U.S. Department of Interior. Pp. 665-882.

Summary of key informant interviews and secondary source data collected for the Social Indicators project, a four-year study of social change in Alaskan coastal communities. Following the i989 Exxon Valdez oil spill, the study expanded its focus to include the social impacts of the disaster. This report deals mainly with Kodiak city. There are sections on historical context, demography, community organization and economy, household organization, ideology, and the effects of the Exxon Valdez oil spill. Also listed under Impacts of the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill.

Location: AEB collection.

 

English Bay [Nanwalek] Elementary and High School Students

1980-1981 Alexandrovsk: English Bay in its Traditional Way. English Bay: Kenai Peninsula Borough School District.

Journal on English Bay history, folklore, and culture. Interviews with local residents, including both English and Sugcestun versions. Stories and recollections, information on local customs including those related to the Russian Orthodox church, recipes and description of medicinal uses of plants.

Location: A. Holmes Johnson, Anchorage Municipal, UAA, Homer Public Library, Valdez Consortium.

 

Grubis, Stephen F

1981 Participation in Education in an Alaskan Native Community: A Case Study. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Simon Fraser University.

A study of community participation in educational decision-making in an Alutiiq village on the Alaska Peninsula with the pseudonym "Nuna."

Location: Micromedia (Canadian Dissertations).

 

Klein, Janet

1981 A History of Kachemak Bay: The Country, the Communities. Homer, Alaska: Homer Society of Natural History.

Does not deal with the Alutiiq communities of Port Graham and English Bay (Nanwalek) except in passing, although the author mentions that some people do think of these villages as a part of "Kachemak Bay." There is a short section on archaeological excavations in Kachemak Bay and on Dena'ina culture (pp. 28-33). Seldovia, discussed on pp. 33-38, is said to be a meeting point of Eskimo, Aleut, Indian, Russian, Scandinavian and German cultures.

Location: A. Holmes Johnson, Anchorage Municipal, Alaska Resource, UAA, Homer Public Library, Valdez Consortium

 

Kodiak Area Native Association

1986-1987 Adaq'wy Oral Histories Project Ephraim Agnot, 8/5/86; Mike and Jenny Chernikoff, with Fred and Esther Chernikoff, 10/86; Nida Chya, 7/86; Katie Ellanek, 2/86; Nick and Christine Ignatin, 7/86; John Larsen and Betty Nelson, 12/86; Larry and Martha Matfay, 2/87; Alex Panamaroff Sr., 8/86; Lawrence Panamaroff, 9/86; John and Julia Pestrikoff, 12/86 Laurie Mulcahey, interviewer.

Tapes and transcripts of interviews with Kodiak area elders about a variety of aspects of traditional village life.

Location: KANA Cultural Heritage Center files.

 

Kodiak Area Native Association

1987 Adaq'wy. Report to the Alaska Department of Community and Regional Affairs. Kodiak: Kodiak Area Native Association.

Includes "The Hidden Story," paper presented by Laurie Mulcahey at the 14th annual meeting of the Alaskan Anthropological Association, and excerpts from interviews with Kodiak area elders.

Location: KANA Cultural Heritage Center files, A. Holmes Johnson, Anchorage Municipal, UAA.

 

Kodiak Area Native Association

1987-1990 Bobby Stamp Interviews. Four interviews by Laurie Mulcahey, 12/87, including material on land otter hunting, bear stories, and sea otter hunting. Four interviews by Deborah Robinson, in 12/88, 4/89, 10/89, and 12/89. Alutiiq Dictionary, transcribed by Deborah Robinson, 8/90.

Tapes and transcripts of interviews with an elder who is originally from the Chugach area, and now lives in Kodiak.

Location: KANA Cultural Heritage Center files.

 

Kodiak Area Native Association

1991 Lost Villages Project. Sven Haakanson Sr., 6/29/91, Eagle Harbor; George Inga Sr., 6/29/91, Eagle Harbor; Moses Larionoff, 6/28/91, Aiaktalik; Mary Morris, 7/9/91, Kanatak; Natalie Simeonoff, 7/9/91, Woody Island; Mike Tunohun, 6/28/91, Woody Island; Anakenti Zeedar, 6/28/91, Kaguyak. Deborah Robinson, interviewer.

Tapes and transcripts of interviews with former residents of Kodiak area villages that no longer exist.

Location: KANA Cultural Heritage Center files.

 

Kodiak High School Students

1976-86 Elwani/Iluani. Journal on Kodiak area culture. Vol. 1, Nos. 1-10; Vol. 2, Nos. 1-5. Anchorage: AT Publishing.

Interviews with local residents by high school students.

Location: A. Holmes Johnson, Kodiak College, Anchorage Municipal, UAA, Homer Public Library.

 

Mason, Rachel

1993 Fishing and Drinking in Kodiak, Alaska: The Sporadic Re-creation of an Endangered Lifestyle Unpublished Ph. D. dissertation, University of Virginia.

The dissertation deals mainly with non-Natives, but there is discussion of Kodiak area Natives' involvement in commercial and subsistence fishing, as well as the Native sobriety movement.

Location: UMI Dissertation Services.

 

Morrison, Eric

1992 Tatitlek. In Social Indicators Study of Alaskan Coastal Villages. IV. Postspill Key Informant Summaries Schedule C Communities, Part 1. Alaska OCS Region Socioeconomic Studies Program Technical Report No. 155. Anchorage: Department of Interior. Pp. 425-436

The chapter on Tatitlek is very brief compared to those on other communities in the Social Indicators study because the author was asked by village officials to leave Tatitlek after less than one day of research The officials were following the instructions of their attorneys in impending oil spill litigation, who felt that any research not in the direct control of the litigants could be used against the community. Also listed under 1989 Exxon Valdez Oil Spill.

Location: Minerals Management Service.

 

Mulcahy, Joanne B.

1988 Knowing Women: Narratives of Healing and Traditional Life from Kodiak Island, Alaska. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Pennsylvania.

Women's narratives provide insight into their lives as traditional healers and midwives in Kodiak area villages. Also listed under Medicine.

Location: UMI Dissertation Services.

 

Oleska, Michael

1982 Three Saints Bay and the Evolution of Aleut Identity. Anchorage: Alaska Pacific University HCRS Village Histories Project.

The author suggests that the introduction of Russian Orthodoxy did not necessarily mean the end of pre-contact Native religion, but instead allowed certain ceremonial elements to continue. Also listed under Religion, Art, and Folklore.

Location: UAF.

 

Ouzinkie High School Students

1981 Ukulaha. Journal of Ouzinkie culture.

Like Elwani/Iluani (Kodiak) and Alexandrovsk (English Bay), this Foxfire-type compendium of student projects features interviews with local residents on local history and culture.

Location: Anchorage Municipal, UAA.

 

Partnow, Patricia

1993 Alutiiq Ethnicity. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Alaska.

Focus on the story and collective experience of the 1912 Mount Katmai eruption. Fieldwork done in the early 1990s. Also listed under 1912 Katmai Eruption.

Location: AEB collection, UMI Dissertation Services.

 

Pedersen, Elsa

1983 English Bay. In A Larger History of the Kenai Peninsula. Elsa Pedersen, ed. Chicago: Adams Press. Pp. 153-156.

Short description of the community, prepared with close reference to the Alexandrovsk journal by English Bay (Nanwalek) elementary and high school students (1980-1981).

Location: Anchorage Municipal, Alaska Resource, UAA. Homer Public Library.

 

Pedersen, Elsa and Billi JoAnne Kaho

1983 Seldovia. In A Larger History of the Kenai Peninsula. Elsa Pedersen, ed. Chicago: Adams Press. Pp. 141-150.

Summary of community history, with a l983 update. In the days of the Russian colony, Seldovia was populated by Alutiiqs, Aleuts, and creoles.

Location: Anchorage Municipal, Alaska Resource, UAA, Homer Public Library.

 

Port Graham High School and Elementary Students

1981-1982 Fireweed Cillqaq. Kenai Peninsula Borough School District.

Interviews with local residents, local history, traditional stories and recipes. Some parts are in Alutiiq.

Location: A. Holmes Johnson, Kodiak College, Anchorage Municipal. UAA, Homer Public Library, Valdez Consortium.

 

Rooks, Curtiss Takada

1992 Kodiak Area Periphery, Native Communities In Social Indicators Study of Alaskan Coastal Villages. IV. Postspill Key Informant Summaries. Schedule C Communities, Part 2. Alaska OCS Region Socioeconomic Studies Program Technical Report No. 155. Anchorage: Department of Interior. Pp. 723-849.

Reports on key informant research in Karluk, Old Harbor, and Chignik. Chapters on each village contain sections on historical background, social organization, economy, ideology and influences of change. and the effects of the Exxon Valdez oil spill. Also listed under 1989 Exxon Valdez Oil Spill.

Location: Minerals Management Service.

 

Rostad, Michael

1988 Time to Dance: Life of an Alaska Native. Anchorage: AT Publishing.

Life story of Larry Matfay, an Alutiiq elder who grew up in Akhiok, spent many years in Old Harbor, and now lives in Kodiak.

Location: A. Holmes Johnson, Anchorage Municipal, UAA, Homer Public Library.

 

Sawden, Feona J.

1983 Port Graham. In A Larger History of the Kenai Peninsula. Elsa Pedersen, ed. Chicago: Adams Press. Pp. 151-152.

A short description of the community, including a list of families living there.

Location: Anchorage Municipal, Alaska Resource, UAA, Homer Public Library.

 

United States Fish and Wildlife Service

1989 Kodiak National Wildlife Refuge: Final Comprehensive Conservation Plan, Environmental Impact Statement, and Wilderness Review. Anchorage: U.S. Department of Interior.

Pp. 109-142 discuss the human environment of communities adjacent to the Kodiak National Wildlife Refuge. Included are prehistory, history, population trends and economic conditions. There are maps of subsistence harvesting areas for Kodiak villages.

Location: A. Holmes Johnson, Anchorage Municipal, Alaska Resource, USFWS.

 

Vick, Ann, ed.

1983 The Cama-i Book. Garden City, New York: Anchor Books.

A compendium of student interviews with elders and other local people; includes excerpts from Kodiak's Elwani/Iluani.

Location: Kodiak College, Anchorage Municipal, UAA, Homer Public Library, Valdez Consortium.

 

White, Mark

1973 Steaming Hot Alaskans, The Banya. Alaska 39(11):16-17.

Letters to the editor by S. Haakanson in Alaska 40(1):28 and T. Rowland in 40(2):32 comment on this article. 

Location: UAA, AEB collection.

 

Will, Anne M.

1981 A History of the City of Kodiak. Anchorage: Alaska Historical Commission.

See listing under American Era.
 

III. H. THE 1989 EXXON VALDEZ OIL SPILL

Endter-Wada, Joanna, Rachel Mason, Jon Hofmeister, and Joanne Mulcahy

1992 The Kodiak Region. In Social Indicators Study of Alaskan Coastal Villages. Key Informant Summaries. Vol. 2: Schedule B Regions. Alaska OCS Region Draft Technical Report No. 152. Anchorage: U.S. Department of Interior. Pp. 665-882.

See listing under Current Ethnography.

 

Fall, James A

1990 Subsistence Uses of Fish and Wildlife and the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill. Paper presented at the 17th annual meeting of the Alaska Anthropological Association, Fairbanks, Alaska.

Reports on research on subsistence harvests in 15 Alutiiq villages the year after the 1989 Exxon Valdez oil spill. The harvests declined substantially in ten of the communities. The steepest decline was in Ouzinkie, which had a harvest 76.6 percent lower than that recorded in a 1989 study. Also listed under Subsistence.

Location: AEB collection.

 

Fall, James A. and Charles J. Utermohle, eds.

1994 An Investigation of the Sociocultural Consequences of Outer Continental Shelf Development in Alaska. Alaska OCS Socioeconomic Studies Program Technical Report - Draft. Anchorage: U S Department of Interior.

A three-year study of subsistence harvests, social effects of the Exxon Valdez oil spill, and attitudes toward oil and gas development among residents of Alutiiq communities in the area affected by the oil spill. Two control communities in Northern Alaska were also surveyed.

Location: ADF&G. Minerals Management Service.

 

Haggerty, James C. , Christopher B. Wooley, Jon M. Erlandson, and Aron Crowell

1991 The 1990 Exxon Cultural Resource Program Site Protection and Maritime Cultural Ecology in Prince William Sound and the Gulf of Alaska. Anchorage: Exxon Shipping Company and Exxon Company, U.S.A.

See listing under General.

 

Impact Assessment, Incorporated

1990a Economic, Social, and Pschological Impact Assessment of the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill. Final Report for the Oiled Mayors Subcommittee, Alaska Conference of Mayors.

Final summary of the study commissioned by the Oiled Mayors. Unique to this oil spill impact study, there is emphasis on psychological impacts such as general anxiety disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder, and depression.

Location: A. Holmes Johnson.

 

Impact Assessment, Incorporated

1990b Social and Psychological Impacts of the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill. Third Interim Report for the Oiled Mayors Study of the Economic, Social and Psychological Impacts of the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill.

A project commissioned by the Oiled Mayors, a group of local leaders in communities impacted by the 1989 oil spill. This report summarizes the results of surveys and key informant interviews in the area of study, which corresponds roughly to the Alutiiq culture area.

Location: A. Holmes Johnson.

 

Mason, Rachel

1990 Final Report: Community Preparation and Response to the Exxon Oil Spill in Kodiak, Alaska. Quick Response research, Natural Hazards Research and Applications Information Center, Boulder, Colorado.

Report on oil spill response efforts and impacts on communities in the Kodiak area in the summer of 1989.

Location: Author.

 

Mason, Rachel

1991 Writing Stories and Doing Surveys on Kodiak Island Following the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Society for Applied Anthropology, Charleston, South Carolina.

Respondents' reactions to the different kinds of research done after the 1989 oil spill. Examples are taken from Kodiak area communities.

Location: Author.

 

Mobley, Charles M., et 21

1990 The 1989 Exxon Valdez Cultural Resource Program. Anchorage: Exxon Shipping Company and Exxon Company, USA.

See listing under General.

 

Morrison, Eric

1992 Tatitlek. In Social Indicators Study of Alaskan Coastal Villages. IV Postspill Key Informant Summaries Schedule C Communities, Part 1. Alaska OCS Region Socioeconomic Studies Program Technical Report No. 155. Anchorage: Department of Interior Pp. 425-436

See listing under Current Ethnography.

 

Palinkas, Lawrence A , Michael A Downs, John S Petterson, and John Russell

1993 Social, Cultural, and Psychological Impacts of the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill Human Organization 52(1):1-13.

Summarizes the results of the oil spill impact study done by Impact Assessment, Inc. (1990a and 1990b) under contract with the Oiled Mayors.

Location: AEB collection. UAA.

 

Rooks, Curtiss Takada

1992 Kodiak Area Periphery, Native Communities. In Social Indicators Study of Alaskan Coastal Villages. IV. Postspill Key Informant Summaries. Schedule C Communities, Part 2. Alaska OCS Region Socioeconomic Studies Program Technical Report No. 155. Anchorage: Department of Interior. Pp. 723849

See listing under Current Ethnography.
 

IV. SPECIAL TOPICS

IV. A. LANGUAGE

Christiansen, Matrona, Doris Lind, Thomas Phillips, Ralph Phillips, and Mike Sam

1977 Alaska Peninsula Alutiiq Workbook. Fairbanks: Alaska Native Language Center, University of Alaska.

Contains songs, special units, and alphabet or teaching Alutiiq. Produced from Alaska Peninsula Alutiiq workshop held in Pilot Point in 1975. Text in Native language and English.

Location: UAA.

 

Dumond, Don E.

1965 On Eskaleut Linguistics, Archaeology, and Prehistory. American Anthropologist 67:1231-1257.

Contains a section on Alutiiq language.

Location: Alaska Resource, UAA on microfilm.

 

Gibbs, George, and W. H. Dall

1877 Vocabulary of the Kaniag'mut Innuit (Kadiak Island). In Contributions to North American Ethnology. W. H. Dall. Appendix to Part I, Tribes of the Extreme Northwest. Washington: Department of the Interior, U.S. Geographical and Geological Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region. Pp. 135-142.

Obtained from a man and woman from a Russian vessel, at Victoria, June 1857, by George Gibb.

Location: UAA Canadiana Microfiche No. 14847.

 

Krauss, Michael E.

1982 Native Peoples and Languages of Alaska. Fairbanks: Alaska Native Language Center, Center for Northern Educational Research, University of Alaska.

See listing under General. 

 

Krauss, Michael E

1980 Alaska Native Languages: Past, Present, and Future. Alaska Native Language Center Research Paper No. 4. Fairbanks: Alaska Native Language Center.

Krauss argues strongly for the preservation of Alaska Native languages which are on the verge of extinction. Alutiiq, discussed on pp. 99-102, is on the endangered list.

Location: A. Holmes Johnson, Kodiak College, Alaska Resource, UAA.

 

Leer, Jeff

1978a A Conversational Dictionary of Kodiak Alutiiq. Fairbanks: Alaska Native Language Center, University of Alaska.

English to Alutiiq only. The dictionary is the outcome of a 1978 workshop involving Alutiiq-speakers from Kodiak area villages.

Location: A Holmes Johnson, Kodiak College, Anchorage Municipal, Valdez Consortium.

 

Leer Jeff

1978b Nanwalegmiut Paluwigmiut-llu Nupugnerit: Conversational Alutiiq Dictionary, Kenai Peninsula Alutiiq. Anchorage: National Bilingual Materials Development Center.

 English to Alutiiq only. Uses each word or phrase in a sentence.

Location: Anchorage Municipal, UAA.

 

Leer, Jeff

1985 Prosody in Alutiiq. In Yupik Eskimo Prosodic Systems: Descriptive and Comparative Studies. Michael Krauss, ed. Fairbanks: Alaska Native Language Center Research Paper No. 7. Pp. 77-133.

Location: Anchorage Municipal, UAA, Valdez Consortium.

 

Leer, Jeff with Nina Zeedar and other elders

1990 Classroom Grammar of Koniag Alutiiq, Kodiak Island Dialect. Fairbanks: Alaska Native Language Center, University of Alaska.

Location: UAF, Alaska Native Language Center. 

 

Woodbury, Anthony C.

1984 Eskimo and Aleut Languages. In Handbook of North American Indians. Vol. 5: Arctic. David Damas, ed. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press. Pp. 49-63.

The author explains that Pacific Yupik (also known as Alutiiq) has two dialects, Koniag and Chugach. The Koniag dialect has two subdialects, one spoken in the Kodiak Archipelago and the other on the Alaska Peninsula. The Chugach dialect also has two subdialects, one spoken in Prince William Sound and the other on the Kenai Peninsula.

Location:A. Holmes Johnson, Anchorage Municipal, Alaska Resource, U M, Homer Public Library, Valdez Consortium.
 

IV. B. KINSHIP

Befu, Harumi

1964 Eskimo Systems of Kinship Terms--Their Diversity and Uniformity Arctic Anthropology 2(1):84-9S

Compares kinship terms of the Chugach, as reported by Birket-Smith l953, with other Eskimo and Aleut groups.

Location: UAA on microfilm.

 

Taylor, Kenneth

1964 A Demographic Study of Karluk, Kodiak Island, Alaska, 1962-1964. Arctic Anthropology 3(2):211-240.

 Taylor notes that the population of Karluk was heavily male at the time of the study (1962-1964). He theorized that more women than men migrated out of the village Within the village, there were also few marriage partners that would be allowed under the Russian Orthodox church's rule forbidding marriage with even second cousins. It was also frowned upon to marry "church kindred" or relatives of godparents. Taylor includes an elaborate although confusing kinship chart.

Location: UAA on microfilm.

IV.C. SUBSISTENCE

Alaska Department of Fish and Game

1985 Alaska Habitat Management Guide, Southwest Region. Vol. 2: Human Use of Fish and Wildlife. Juneau: Alaska Department of Fish and Game.

Commercial, recreational, and subsistence uses of fish and game in Southwest Alaskan communities, including the Kodiak and Chignik areas. Information on subsistence uses is drawn from studies conducted by the Alaska Department of Fish and Game Division of Subsistence. Management history is presented here, as well as harvest data.

Location: A Holmes Johnson, Anchorage Municipal, Alaska Resource, UAA, Valdez Consortium.

 

Crowell, Aron

1994 Koniag Eskimo Poisoned-Dart Whaling. In Anthropology of the North Pacific Rim. William W. Fitzhugh and Valerie Chaussonet, eds. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press. Pp. 217-242.

Information on whaling methods was gleaned primarily from the writings of early European observers. The poison used by Koniag whalers was aconite, taken from the root of the monkshood plant. It is unlikely that the poison itself killed the whale. Instead, it probably paralyzed one of the whale's flippers, causing it to drown.

Location: A. Holmes Johnson, Kodiak College, Alaska Resource, Homer Public Library.

 

Dyson, George

1986 Baidarka. Edmonds: Alaska Northwest Publishing Co.

Includes some illustrations rarely seen elsewhere, among them Shields drawings of Kodiak two- and three-hatch kayaks, ca. 1798.

Location:A. Holmes Johnson, Kodiak College, Anchorage Municipal, Alaska Resource, UAA, Homer Public Library, Valdez Consortium.

 

Fall, James A.

1991 Subsistence Uses of Fish and Wildlife and the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill. Paper presented at the 17th annual meeting of the Alaska Anthropological Association, Fairbanks, Alaska.

See listing under Impacts of the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill.

 

Fall, James A and Charles J. Utermohle, eds.

1994 An Investigation of the Sociocultural Consequences of Outer Continental Shelf Development in Alaska. Alaska OCS Socioeconomic Studies Program Technical Report - Draft. Anchorage: U.S. Department of Interior.

See listing under Impacts of the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill.

 

Fall, James A. and Robert J. Walker

1986 Subsistence Harvests in Six Kodiak Communities, 1986. Alaska Department of Fish and Game, Division of Subsistence, Technical Paper No. 193.

Location: ADF&G (Juneau)

 

Graham, Frances Kelso

1985 Plant Lore of an Alaska Island. Anchorage: Alaska Northwest Publishing Company.

Traditionally-used plants in Ouzinkie, Spruce Island.

Location: A. Holmes Johnson, Anchorage Municipal, Alaska Resource, UAA, Homer Public Library, Valdez Consortium.

 

Haynes, Terry L and Craig Mishler

1991 The Subsistence Harvest and Use of Stellar Sea Lions in Alaska. Alaska Department of Fish and Game, Division of Subsistence, Technical Paper No. 198.

This report was prepared to assist in the preparation or a recovery plan for the Stellar sea lion population that was sensitive to subsistence uses. Information on prehistoric, historic, and contemporary uses, as well as folklore about sea lions. The report includes sea lion harvest data from communities in the Kodiak Archipelago, Lower Cook Inlet, Prince William Sound, and Lower Alaska Peninsula, as well as other areas.

Location: AEB collection.

 

Hausler-Knecht, Philomena

1993 Early Prehistory of the Kodiak Archipelago. Paper presented at the International Seminar on the Origins, Development, and Spread of North Pacific-Bering Sea Maritime Cultures, Honolulu, Hawaii.

See listing under Prehistory.

 

Heizer, Robert F.

1943a A Pacific Eskimo Invention in Whale Hunting in Historic Times. American Anthropologist 45(1):120-122.

Location: Anchorage Municipal, UAA on microfiche.

 

Heizer, Robert F.

1943b Aconite Poison Whaling in Asia and America: An Aleutian Transfer to the New World. Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin 133:415-468. Anthropological Papers No. 24.

Whaling was done by aconite poisoning among the Ainu, Koryak, Chukcnee, Aleuts, and Alutiiqs. Discussion of the Kodiak Island region is on p. 433. Heizer uses information from historical sources such as Holmberg, Davydov, and Lisiansky.

Location: AEB collection.

 

Josephson, Karla

1974 Use of the Sea by Alaska Natives--A Historical Perspective. Alaska Sea Grant Report No. 73-11. Anchorage: Arctic Environmental Information and Data Center.

Comprised primarily of quotations from published sources for each of several regions. Kodiak is on p. 12.

Location: A. Holmes Johnson, Kodiak College, Anchorage Municipal, Alaska Resource, UAA.

 

Kodiak Area Native Association and the Alaska Department of Fish and Game Division of Subsistence

1983 Kodiak Island Area Local Fish and Game Resource Guide.

Subsistence activities of residents of Kodiak area villages, Kodiak city, the Kodiak road system, and the Kodiak Coast Guard Base. Within Kodiak city, the subsistence harvests of Alaska Natives and Filipinos were studied as subsets of the larger sample. The report was cited by Langdon 1986.

Location: AEB collection.

 

Langdon, Steven J.

1986 Commercial Fishing and Subsistence Activities. In A Description of the Economic and Social Systems of the Kodiak-Shumagin Region. William E Davis, ed. OCS Technical Report No. 122, Minerals Management Service, Anchorage: Cultural Dynamics, Ltd. Pp. 5-196

The chapter on commercial fishing in the Kodiak and Chignik regions (pp. 5-149) discusses Natives' involvement, especially in regard to salmon limited entry. The chapter on subsistence activities (pp. 151-196) is drawn mainly from a study done jointly by the Kodiak Area Native Association and the Alaska Department of Fish and Game (ADF&G) Division of Subsistence in 1983, and from ADF&G subsistence surveys done in the Chignik area in 1982 and 1983.

Location: AEB collection

 

Lantis, Margaret

1938a The Alaskan Whale Cult and its Affinities. American Anthropologist 40:438-464.

A study based on historical and ethnographic accounts which includes the Alutiiq culture area.

Location: UAA on microfilm.

 

Lubischer, Joseph

1988 The Baidarka as a Living Vessel. Occasional Papers of the Baidarka Historical Society No. 1. Port Moody, British Columbia.

Mostly about Aleut kayaks, but contains some information on Kodiak boats. Discusses the construction of baidarkas and their spiritual meaning.

Location: A. Holmes Johnson, Anchorage Municipal.

 

Mishler, Craig

1991 From Quantitative to Qualitative: Subsistence Food Harvests and Alutiiq Cultural Traditions. Paper presented at the 18th annual meeting of the Alaskan Anthropological Association, Anchorage.

The author hypothesizes that subsistence harvest levels are associated with involvement in other cultural traditions such as Alutiiq language, commitment to Russian Orthodox religion, or participation in celebrations such as masking or name days. However, he finds that the villages with the highest subsistence harvests are not necessarily the most "traditional."

Location: AEB collection.

 

Morehouse, Thomas A. and Marybeth Holleman

1994 When Values Conflict: Accommodating Alaska Native Subsistence. Institute of Social and Economic Research Occasional Paper No. 22. Anchorage: University of Alaska-Anchorage.

Does not specifically discuss the Alutiiq culture area, but gives a good overview of the history of subsistence legislation and court cases, and the conflicting values that have emerged in reference to the subsistence issue.

Location: Institute of Social and Economic Research (UAA).

 

Morris, Judith Marek

1987 Fish and Wildlife Uses in Six Alaska Peninsula Communities: Egegik, Chignik, Chignik Lagoon, Chignik Lake, Perryville, and Ivanof Bay. Alaska Department of Fish and Game Division of Subsistence Technical Paper No. 151.

Study of the five Chignik area villages, plus Egegik, on the Alaska Peninsula. Includes community profiles, socioeconomic background, seasonal round of subsistence activities, use areas, harvest levels, and comparisons among communities. Most of the research for this report was conducted in 1984 and 1985.

Location: UAA, AEB collection, ADF&G (Juneau).

 

Opheim, Edward

1974 Dories by Opheim. Alaska 40(11):8-11, 57-58.

The author lives on Spruce Island near the village of Ouzinkie. He claims the best dories in Alaska's boat-building history were built. between 1920 and 1940 in Ouzinkie by men of Native-Russian descent.

Location: UAA, AEB collection.

 

Russell, Patricia N.

1991 Kodiak Alutiiq Plantlore. Manuscript.

Uses of plants for food and medicine. Also listed under Medicine.

Location: KANA Cultural Heritage Center.

 

Stanek, Ronald T.

1982 Natural Resource Harvests at Port Graham and English Bay, 1982: An Interim Report. Alaska Department of Fish and Game, Division of Subsistence, Technical Paper No. 32.

Reports on subsistence harvests .from April 1981 to March 1982. A survey was completed on harvests or all resources, but there is special interest in salmon. Special calendars were distributed to residents to report their harvests.

Location: ADF&G (Juneau).

 

Stanek, Ronald T.

1985 Patterns of Wild Resource Use in English Bay and Port Graham, Alaska. Alaska Department of Fish and Game Division of Subsistence, Technical Paper No. 104.

Information on subsistence activities was obtained in English Bay (Nanwalek) and Port Graham between 1981 and 1983. Research methods included self-reporting on harvest calendars, field observation, and key informant interviews. This paper includes historical background and community characteristics, as well as a very complete section on contemporary use patterns.

Location: AEB collection, ADF&G (Juneau).

 

Stanek, Ronald T.

1991 Contemporary Wild Food Dishes Prepared in Port Graham and English Bay. Paper presented at the 18th annual meeting of the Alaskan Anthropological Association, Anchorage.

How subsistence foods are processed and prepared.

Location: AEB collection.

 

Stanek, Ronald T., James A. Fall, and Dan Foster

1982 Subsistence Shellfish Use in Three Cook Inlet Villages, 1981: A Preliminary Report. Alaska Department of Fish and Game, Division of Subsistence, Technical Report No. 34.

Location: ADF&G (Juneau).

 

Stratton, Lee

1981 Chugach Region Community Subsistence Profiles: A Resource Book for the North Pacific Rim and the Native Communities of the Region. Unpublished paper.

Location: ADF&G (Juneau).

Stratton, Lee

1990 Resource Harvest and Use in Tatitlek, Alaska. Alaska Department of Fish and Game Division of Subsistence, Technical Paper No. 181.

Historical and contemporary patterns of harvest and use of wild resources in this Alutiiq community in Prince William Sound. Contemporary findings are based on surveys conducted in 1988 and 1989.

Location: AEB collection, ADF&G (Juneau).

 

Stratton, Lee and Evelyn B. Chisum

1986 Resource Use Patterns in Chenega, Western Prince William Sound: Chenega in the 1960s and Chenega Bay 1984-1986. Alaska Department of Fish & Game Division of Subsistence, Technical Paper No. 139.

Comparison of subsistence activities in Chenega in the early 1960s, before the village was destroyed in the 1964 earthquake, with subsistence activities in the new village of Chenega Bay, founded and resettled by Chenega survivors in 1954. Research on 1960s activities was conducted by asking former residents of Chenega to recall their pre-earthquake harvests. Contemporary activities were documented through household surveys administered in 1985 and 1986.

Location: AEB collection, ADF&G (Juneau).

 

Tuten, Merry Allyn

1977 A Preliminary Study of Subsistence Activities on the Pacific Coast of the Proposed Aniakchak Caldera National Monument. Cooperative Park Studies Unit Occasional Paper No. 4. Fairbanks: University of Alaska.

Subsistence activities and 1975 harvests of residents of the three Chignik villages. The study was done in preparation for establishing a National Monument.

Location: Alaska Resource. UAA.

 

Wennekens, Alix Jane

1985 Traditional Plant Usage by Chugach Natives Around Prince William Sound and the Lower Kenai Peninsula. Unpublished M.A. thesis, University of Alaska-Anchorage.

The author interviewed residents of Tatitlek, Cordova, Port Graham and English Bay to discover traditional uses of plants for food and medicine. Includes Latin and Alutiiq names of plants. Also listed under Medicine.

Location: UAA.

 

Yarborough, Linda F.

1993 Prehistoric Use of Cetacea Species in the Northern Gulf of Alaska. Paper presented at the 20th Annual Meeting of the Alaskan Anthropological Association, Anchorage.

See listing under Prehistory.

IV.D. WARFARE

Golder, Frank A.

1909b Primitive Warfare Among the Natives of Western Alaska. Journal of American Folklore 22:336-339.

Location: UAA library on microfilm

 

Moss, Madonna L. and Jon M. Erlandson

1992 Forts, Refuge Rocks, and Defensive Sites: The Antiquity of Warfare Along the North Pacific Coast of North America. Arctic Anthropology 29(2):73-90.

Archaeological evidence for warfare among Aleut, Alutiiq and Northwest Coast Indians. Also listed under Prehistory.

Location: A. Holmes Johnson, UAA, AEB collection.

IV. E. RELIGION, ART, AND FOLKLORE

Afonsky, Gregory (Bishop)

1977 A History of the Orthodox Church in Alaska (17941917). Kodiak: St. Herman's Theological Seminary Press.

Information on the Kodiak Mission, which brought the first Russian Orthodox clergy to Alaska, as well as the works of notable churchmen such as Veniaminov (Saint Innocent). Contains a chronology of the Russian Orthodox church in Alaska.

Location: A. Holmes Johnson, Anchorage Municipal, Alaska Resource, UAA.

 

Black, Lydia T.

l991 Glory Remembered: Wooden Headgear of Alaskan Sea Hunters. Juneau: Friends of the Alaska State Museum.

Includes a reprint of "Aleut Hunting Headgear and its Ornamentation" by S. V. Ivanov, 1930. Black presents the thesis that Kodiak Island is the center or development of bentwood headgear. The volume is richly illustrated, with five previously unpublished photographs of figurines from Kodiak.

Location: A. Holmes Johnson, Kodiak College, Anchorage Municipal, Alaska Resource, UAA.

Black, Lydia T.

1994 Deciphering Aleut/Koniag Iconography. In Anthropology of the North Pacific Rim. William W. Fitzhugh and Valerie Chaussonnet, eds. Washington, D.C. : Smithsonian Institution.

An essay on the symbolism of Aleut and Alutiiq bentwood helmets.

Location: A. Holmes Johnson, Kodiak College, Alaska Resource, Homer Public Library.

 

Donta, Christopher

1992 Koniag Ceremonialism. Unpublished Ph. D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, Bryn Mawr College.

See entry under Prehistory.

 

Donta, Christopher

1994 Continuity and Function in the Ceremonial Material Culture of the Koniag Eskimo. In Reckoning with the Dead: The Larsen Bay Repatriation Case and the Smithsonian Institution. Tamara L. Bray and Thomas W. Killion, eds. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press. Pp. 122-136.

See entry under Prehistory.

 

Golder, Frank A.

1903 Tales from Kodiak Island. Journal of American Folklore 16:16-31, 85-103

Location: Alaska Resource.

 

Golder, Frank A.

1907 A Kodiak Island Story: The White Faced Bear. Journal of American Folklore 20:296-299.

A bear hunter is transformed into a bear with white face and paws.

Location: Alaska Resource.

 

Golder, Frank A.

1909a Eskimo and Aleut Stories from Alaska. Journal of American Folklore 22:10-24.

Location: Alaska Resource.

 

Johnson, John F. C.

1984 Chugach Legends: Stories and Photographs of the Chugach Region. Anchorage: Chugach Alaska Corporation.

Many of the stories are taken from Birket-Smith 1953. There are some references to Kodiak. Photographs are of Alutiiq, Eyak, Athabaskan, and Tlingit people, taken in the first part of the twentieth century.

Location: A. Holmes Johnson, Anchorage Municipal, UAA, Valdez Consortium.

 

Lantis, Margaret

1938b The Mythology of Kodiak Island, Alaska Journal of American Folklore 51:123-172

Gives synopses of Kodiak myths and stories collected by Lisiansky, Holmberg, Pinart, and Golder. Sorts the myths by subject matter and compares motifs with those found in Baffin Land and Greenland.

Location: Alaska Resource

 

Lantis, Margaret

1947 Alaskan Eskimo Ceremonialism. American Ethnological Society Monograph 11. New York.

A study based on historical and ethnographic accounts which includes material on the Alutiiq culture area.

Location: Anchorage Municipal, UAA.

 

Lee, Molly

1981 Pacific Eskimo Spruce Root Baskets. American Indian Art Magazine 6(2):66-73

Prince William Sound and possibly Kodiak baskets are included.

Location: Anchorage Municipal.

 

Mason, Rachel

1988 Russian Orthodox Church Readers in Kodiak Area Villages. Paper presented at the 1988 Kodiak Cultural Heritage Conference, Kodiak, Alaska.

Almost all Native lay readers in the Russian Orthodox church used to be male. Increasingly, however, women are taking this role. Examples are drawn from the Kodiak area and from Aleutian communities.

Location: AEB collection.

 

Oleksa, Michael

1982 Three Saints Bay and the Evolution of Aleut Identity. Anchorage: Alaska Pacific University HCRS Village Histories Project.

See listing under Current Ethnography

 

Oleksa, Michael, ed.

1987 Alaskan Missionary Spirituality. New York: Paulist Press.

Deals mainly with the Russian Orthodox Church in Alaska in the nineteenth century. Has a list of Aleut and Creole churchmen.

Location: A. Holmes Johnson, Kodiak College, Anchorage Municipal, UAA, Valdez Consortium.

 

Pinart, Alphonse

1871-72 Field Notes from the Kodiak Island Region. Manuscript.

This often-cited obscure manuscript in French and Russian contains ethnographic observations and collected material on Koniag language, folklore, and religion. Also listed under History: Russian Era.

Location: Banc-oft Library, University of California-Berkeley.

 

Rathburn, Robert R

1981 The Russian Orthodox Church as a Native Institution Among the Koniag Eskimo of Kodiak Island, Alaska. Arctic Anthropology 18(1):12-22.

Mainly drawn from observations in Ouzinkie and Kodiak. The author argues that although Russian Orthodox religion was introduced by Europeans, it is now a Native institution.

Location: UAA, AEB collection.

 

Smith, Barbara

1980 Orthodoxy and Native Americans: The Alaskan Mission. Syosset, New York: St. Vladimir's Seminary press.

See listing under History: Russian Era.

IV.F. MEDICINE

Fortuine, Robert

1985 Lancets of Stone: Traditional Methods of Surgery Among the Alaska Natives. Arctic Anthropology 22(1):23-45.

Tells the methods and purposes of traditional surgery, taking information on the Koniags and Chugach from published sources. Under the category of "surgery" are ritual procedures such as tattooing or ear, nose, and lip piercing; massage; foreign body removal; removal of kidney stones (lithotomy); treatment of eye diseases; lancing; bleeding; and acupuncture. Many references to Kodiak.

Location: UAA library, AEB collection.

 

Fortuine, Robert

1989 Chills and Fever: Health and Disease in the Early History of Alaska. Anchorage: University of Alaska Press.

Many references to Kodiak. Emphasis is on epidemics of the historical era, such as smallpox and tuberculosis.

Location: A. Holmes Johnson, Kodiak College, Anchorage Municipal, Alaska Resource, UAA, Valdez Consortium.

 

Mulcahy, Joanne B

1938 Knowing Women: Narratives of Healing and Traditional Life from Kodiak Island, Alaska. Unpublished Ph. D. dissertation, University of Pennsylvania.

See listing under Current Ethnography.

 

Mulcahy, Joanne B.

1993 "How They Knew": Women's Talk about Healing on Kodiak Island, Alaska. In Feminist Messages. Joan N. Radner, ed. Urbana: University of Illinois Press Pp. 133-202.

An essay about Kodiak Island women's knowledge of healing and midwifery, and how women's stories communicate a world view.

Location: AEB collection.

 

Mulcahy, Joanne B. with Mary Petersen

1993 Mary Petersen: A Life of Healing and Renewal. In Wings of Gauze: Women of Color and the Experience of Health and Illness. B. Bail and S. Cayliff, eds. Wayne State Press.

Biography of a Kodiak Island woman who was a midwife and traditional healer (she referred to her work as "helping") in a Kodiak Island village.

Location: AEB collection.

 

Russell, Patricia N.

1991 Kodiak Alutiiq Plantlore. Manuscript.

See listing under Subsistence.

 

Wennekens, Alix Jane

1985 Traditional Plant Usage by Chugach Natives Around Prince William Sound and the Lower Kenai Peninsula. Unpublished M.A. thesis, University of Alaska-Anchorage.

See listing under Subsistence.

IV. G. CULTURAL REVITALIZATION

Bray, Tamara L and Thomas W. Killion, eds.

1994 Reckoning with the Dead: The Larsen Bay Repatriation Case and the Smithsonian Institution. Washington, D.C..: Smithsonian Institution Press

See individual entries for Clark (1994b), Donta, Dumond, Pullar, Simon and Steffian, and Urcid, from this volume.

Location: Kodiak and Anchorage libraries.

 

Jordan, Richard H. and Richard A . Knecht

1990 Natives and Archaeologists: The Kodiak Experience Paper presented at the Canadian Archaeological Association Meetings, Whitehorse, Yukon Territory.

The senior author directed the Bryn Mawr excavations at Karluk in the 1980s, and both authors worked at this site.

Location: Author Richard Knecht.

 

Knecht, Richard

1994 Archaeology and Alutiiq Cultural Identity on Kodiak Society for American Archaeology Bulletin 12(5):8-10.

Location: Author.

 

Mulcahy, Joanne B.

1987 Reclaiming Ethnic Identity: Kodiak Island's "Aleuts " Alaska Native Magazine, April, pp. 12-14.

Addresses the questions of the ethnic identity of Kodiak Island Natives, who since the time of the Russian colony have been called and have called themselves "Aleuts." This paper was written before the term "Alutiiq" gained its current popularity.

Location: AEB collection.

 

Parfit, Michael

1985 Kodiak, "Twice as Good as Anybody " Islands Magazine, February, pp. 40-59.

Discusses Kodiak villages, contemporary Alutiiq issues, and Kodiak Native leader Karl Armstrong.

Location: Not found.

 

Pullar, Gordon L.

1981 Koniag: Halfway There. Nations: The Native American Magazine 1(1):11-13.

In 1981, the regional Native corporations were halfway through the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act's twenty-year startup cycle. The author reports on business activities of Koniag, Inc., focusing on the regional corporation's merger with several village corporations. Pullar also mentions that because of extensive intermarriage between Natives and Russians in the Kodiak area. and because of the Russian colonial use of the term "creole," there were initial difficulties in determining who was eligible for enrollment in Koniag, Inc.

Location: AEB collection.

 

Pullar, Gordon L.

1989 The Hrdlicka* Legacy and Koniag Spirits. Paper presented at the Circumpacific Prehistory Conference, Seattle, Washington.

This paper was presented while the Native people of Kodiak Island were in the midst of a struggle to retrieve from the Smithsonian and rebury the skeletal remains of Alutiiq ancestors collected by Ales Hrdlicka* in Larsen Bay.

Location: AEB collection.

 

Pullar, Gordon

1990a The Kodiak Island Archaeological Project. In Preservation on the Reservation: Native Americans, Native American Lands and Archaeology. A. L. Klesert and A. S. Downer, eds. Navajo Nation Papers in Anthropology No. 26. Pp. 269-274.

Location: Alaska Resource.

 

Pullar, Gordon L.

1990b The Koniagmiut Renaissance Paper prepared for the "Recapturing Heritage" Panel, Seventh Inuit Studies Conference, University of Alaska, Fairbanks.

The author documents events and activities that have led to Alutiiq cultural revitalization, particularly programs of the Kodiak Area Native Association initiated in the mid-1980s.

Location: AEB collection

 

Pullar, Gordon

1992 Ethnic Identity, Cultural Pride and Generations of Baggage. A Personal Experience. Arctic Anthropology 29(2): 198-209.

Alutiiq ethnic identity and the cultural revitalization movement are put in the context of generations of catastrophes such as epidemics, placement of children in institutions, and alcohol abuse. The author is the former president of the Kodiak Area Native Association.

Location: UAA, AEB collection.

 

Pullar, Gordon L.

1994a Alutiiq. In Native America in the Twentieth Century: An Encyclopedia. Mary B. Davis, ed. New York: Garland Publishing. Pp. 29-31.

See listing under General.

 

Pullar, Gordon L.

1994b The Qikertarmuit and the Scientist: Fifty Years of Clashing Views. In Reckoning With The Dead: The Larsen Bay Repatriation and the Smithsonian Institution. Tamara L. Bray and Thomas W. Killion, eds. Washington, D.C. : Smithsonian Institution Press.

Explains the contentious history of the retrieval of the Larsen Bay bones from the Smithsonian Institution in order to rebury them as an example of contrasting world views. Larsen Bay Natives saw the issue a matter of respect. The Smithsonian scientists argued that Hrdlicka* had been given permission to excavate in Larsen Bay, that the remains taken from Larsen Bay were not those of people ancestral to the contemporary residents, and that the Smithsonian now owned them.

Location: Kodiak and Anchorage libraries.

V. VIDEOS AND COMPUTER SOFTWARE

Hausler-Knecht, Philomena

1993 Alutiiq Studies Curriculum.

Computer software, videos, lessons and workbooks designed to teach the Alutiiq language. One curriculum has been developed for the Chugach dialect. as spoken in Port Graham; another for the Kodiak dialect. A four-credit college course in Kodiak Alutiiq has been prepared through a grant from the National Park Service.

Location: KANA Cultural Heritage Center.

 

National Geographic

1994 Island of the Giant Bears.

This video based on the November 1993 National Geographic story aired on PBS on January 12, 1994. There is a special focus on Old Harbor.

Location: Kodiak and Anchorage libraries.

 

Peterson, Judy

1987 Our Aleut History: Alaskan Natives in Progress.

A video about Peterson's family and heritage, including many old photographs.

Location: A. Holmes Johnson. 

 

Smithsonian Institution

n. d. Hrdlicka's* Excavations at Uyak Bay.

A video made from old-time footage of Hrdlicka's* dig near Larsen Bay in the 1930s. 

Location: KANA Cultural Heritage Center.

VI. ALPHABETICAL LIST OF SOURCES

Afonsky, Gregory (Bishop)

1977 A History of the Orthodox Church in Alaska (1794-1917). Kodiak: St. Herman's Theological Seminary Press.

 

Alaska Department of Community and Regional Affairs

1981 Village profiles prepared by DOWL Engineers, with North Pacific Aerial Surveys and Honda Graphics. Akhiok, Karluk, Larsen Bay, Old Harbor, Ouzinkie, Port Lions.

 

Alaska Department of Fish and Game

1985 Alaska Habitat Management Guide, Southwest Region Vol. 2: of Human Use of Fish and Wildlife. Juneau: Alaska Department of Fish and Game.

 

Alaska Geographic

1977 Kodiak, Island of Change. Alaska Geographic 4(3).

 

Alaska Geographic

1979 Alaska's Native People. Alaska Geographic 6(3).

 

Alaska Geographic

1992c Kodiak. Alaska Geographic 19(3).

 

Alaska Geographic

1992b Prince William Sound. Alaska Geographic 20(1).

 

Alaska Geographic

1994 The Alaska Peninsula. Alaska Geographic 21(1)

 

Anonymous

1943 Reindeer report for all Alaska. Includes a 1921 contract with Simeon Agnot, reindeer apprentice at Alitak.

 

Arnold, Robert D.

1976 Alaska Native Land Claims. Anchorage: The Alaska Native Foundation.

 

Bailey, Marie

1949 Old Harbor. Alaska Sportsman 15(4):6-11, 38-40.

 

Bancroft, Hubert Howe

1959 History of Alaska, 1730-1885

 

Barsh, Russel Lawrence

1985 Karluk River. Study Kodiak: Kodiak Area Native Association.

 

Bean, Tarleton H.

1891 Report on the Salmon and Salmon Rivers of Alaska. In Bulletin of the U.S. Fish Commission Vol. 9 (1889). Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office. Pp. 165-208.

 

Befu, Harumi

1964 Eskimo Systems of Kinship Terms--Their Diversity and Uniformity. Arctic Anthropology 2(1):84-98.

 

Befu, Harumi

1971 Ethnographic Sketch of Old Harbor. Kodiak: An Eskimo Village. Arctic Anthropology 6(2):29-42.

 

Birket-Smith, Kaj

1941 Early Collections from the Pacific Eskimo. Ethnological Studies, Nationalmuseets Skrifter. Etnografisk Raekke 1:121-163. Copenhagen, Denmark: Gyldendal.

 

Birket-Smith, Kaj

1953 The Chugach Eskimo. Nationalmuseets Skrifter, Ethnographisk Raekke 6. Copenhagen.

 

Black, Lydia T., trans. and ed.

1977 The Konyag (The Inhabitants of the Island of Kodiak) by Iosaf [Bolotov] (1794-1799) and by Gideon (1804-1807). Arctic Anthropology 14(2):79-108.

 

Black, Lydia T.

1991 Glory Remembered: Wooden Headgear of Alaskan Sea Hunters. Juneau: Friends of the Alaska State Museum.

 

Black, Lydia T.

1992 The Russian Conquest of Kodiak. Anthropological Papers of the University of Alaska 24 (1&2).

 

Black, Lydia T.

1994 Deciphering Aleut/Koniag Iconography. In Anthropology of the North Pacific Rim. William W. Fitzhugh and Valerie Chaussonnet eds. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution 133-146.

 

Borroughs, John

1904 Far and Near. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

 

Braund, Stephen R. and S. R. Behnke

1979 Lower Cook Inlet Sociocultural Systems Analysis. Alaska OCS Socioeconomic Studies Program Technical Report No. 47. Minerals Management Service. Anchorage: U S. Department of Interior.

 

Bray, Tamara L. and Thomas W. Killion, eds.

1994 Reckoning with the Dead: The Larsen Bay Repatriation Case and the Smithsonian Institution. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press.

 

Buck, Eugene H. , William J. Wilson, Larry S. Lau, Caedmon Liburd, and Harold W. Searby.

1975 Kadyak: A Background for Living Anchorage: Arctic Environmental and Data Center.

 

Bureau of Indian Affairs

1916 Annual Report Akhiok School. National Archives and Records Service. Bureau of Indian Affairs record group, drawer 143, file no. 357, folder 1916-1917 Akhiok School.

 

Bureau of Indian Affairs

1934-1950 Village school descriptions, health records, food survey, and census data Afognak, Aiaktalik, Alitak, Chenega, Chignik, Cordova, English Bay, Kaguyak, Karluk, Larsen Bay, Old Harbor, Ouzinkie, Perryville, Port Graham, Tatitlek, Woody Island.

 

Case, David S.

1984 Alaska Natives and American Law. Fairbanks: University of Alaska Press.

 

Chaffin, Yule, Trisha Hampton Krieger, and Michael Rostad

1983 Alaska's Konyag Country. Pratt Publishing.

 

Christiansen, Matrona, Doris Lind, Thomas Phillips, Ralph Phillips and Mike Sam

1977 Alaska Peninsula Alutiiq Workbook. Jeff Leer, ed. Fairbanks: Alaska Native Language Center, University of Alaska.

 

Clark, Donald W.

1974 Koniag Prehistory. Tubinger Monographien zur Urgeschichte, Band 1. Stuttgart, Germany: Verlag W. Kohlhammer.

 

Clark, Donald W.

1975 Koniag-Pacific Eskimo Bibliography. Ottawa: National Museums of Canada.

 

Clark, Donald W.

1984a Pacific Eskimo: Historical Ethnography. In Handbook of North American Indians: Arctic. Vol. 5. D. Damas, ed. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Pp. 185-197.

 

Clark, Donald W.

1984b Prehistory of the Pacific Eskimo Region. In Handbook of North American Indians: Arctic. Vol. 5. D. Damas, ed. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution. Pp. 136-148.

 

Clark, Donald W.

1987 On a Misty Day You Can See Back to 1805: Ethnohistory and Historical Archaeology on the Southeastern Side of Kodiak Island, Alaska. Anthropological Papers of the University of Alaska 21(1-2):105-132.

 

Clark, Donald W.

1988 The Peoples and History of Kodiak Island, Alaska: A Bibliography. Ottawa, Ontario, Canada: Unpublished manuscript and diskette.

 

Clark, Donald W.

1992 Only a Skin Boat Load or Two: The Role of Migration in Kodiak Prehistory. Arctic Anthropology 29(1):2-17.

 

Clark, Donald W.

1994a Archaeology on Kodiak: The Quest for Prehistory and its Implications for North Pacific Prehistory. Anthropological Papers of the University of Alaska 24(1&2).

 

Clark, Donald W.

1994b Still a Big Story: The Prehistory of Kodiak Island. In Reckoning With the Dead: The Larsen Bay Repatriation and the Smithsonian Institution. Tamara L. Bray and Thomas W. Killion, eds. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press. Pp. 137-149.

 

Clark, Marvin H., Jr.

1980 Pinnell and Talifson: Last of the Great Brown Bear Men. Anchorage: Great Northwest Publishing and Distribution Co.

 

Colby, Merle

1939 A Guide to Alaska: Last American Frontier. Federal Writers Project American Guide Series. New York: MacMillan.

 

Cordova High School Discovery Program

1980 Out of Our Time: Early Native Life, Railroad and Mining Days, Fish Tales, Earthquake, Fire.

 

Crowell, Aron

1992 Postcontact Koniag Ceremonialism on Kodiak Island and the Alaska Peninsula: Evidence from the Fisher Collection. Arctic Anthropology 29(1):18-37.

 

Crowell, Aron

1994 Koniag Eskimo Poisoned-Dart Whaling. In Anthropology of the North Pacific Rim. William W. Fitzhugh and Valerie Chaussonnet, eds. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press Pp. 217-242.

 

Curtiss, Marion

1948 Stricken Village. Public Health Nursing. December.

 

Davydov, G. I.

1977 Two Voyages to Russian America, 1802-1807. Colin Bearne, trans. Richard A. Pierce, ed. Kingston, Ontario: The Limestone Press.

 

Davis, Nancy Yaw

1970 The Role of the Russian Orthodox Church in Five Pacific Eskimo Villages as Revealed by the Earthquake. The Great Alaska Earthquake, Human Ecology Volume. Washington: National Research Council. Pp. 125-145.

 

Davis, Nancy Yaw

1971 The Effects of the 1964 Earthquake, Tsunami, and Resettlement on Two Koniag Eskimo Villages. Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Washington.

 

Davis, Nancy Yaw

1976 Steps Toward Understanding Rapid Culture Change in Native Rural Alaska. Commission Study 16. Joint Federal-State Land Use Planning Commission for Alaska.

 

Davis, Nancy Yaw

1977 Chapter 1: An Historical Overview. In Ggwangkumtenek Sungcarluta. Gregg Brelsford, ed. Anchorage: North Pacific Rim Health Department.

 

Davis, Nancy Yaw

1978 Interview with Karl Armstrong, 11/7/78. In KANA files.

 

Davis, Nancy Yaw

1979 Kodiak Native Sociocultural Impacts. Western Gulf of Alaska. Petroleum Development Scenarios. Alaska OCS Socioeconomic Studies Program Technical Report No. 41. Anchorage: U.S. Department of Interior.

 

Davis, Nancy Yaw

1984 Contemporary Pacific Eskimo. In Handbook of North American Indians: Arctic Vol. 5. D. Damas, ed. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Pp. 198-204.

 

Davis, Nancy Yaw

1986a Earthquake, Tsunami, Resettlement and Survival in Two North Pacific Alaskan Native Villages. In Natural Disasters and Cultural Responses. Anthony Oliver-Smith, ed. Studies in Third World Societies Publication No. 36. Pp. 123-154.

 

Davis, Nancy Yaw

1986b A Sociocultural Description of Small Communities in the Kodiak/Shumagin Region. OCS Technical Report No. 121, Minerals Management Service. Anchorage: Cultural Dynamics, Ltd.

 

Davis, Nancy Yaw

1987 English Bay: History and Continuity. Paper prepared for Alaska Legal Services.

 

de Laguna, Frederica

1934 The Archaeology of Cook Inlet, Alaska. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Museum.

 

de Laguna, Frederica

1956 Chugach Prehistory. Seattle: University of Washington Publications in Anthropology, Vol. 13.

 

Donta, Christopher

1988 Archaeological Indications of Evolving Social Complexity on Kodiak Island, Alaska. Unpublished M.A. Thesis, Department of Anthropology, Bryn Mawr College.

 

Donta, Christopher

1993 Koniag Ceremonialism. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, Bryn Mawr College.

 

Donta, Christopher

1994 Continuity and Function in the Ceremonial Material Culture of the Koniag Eskimo. In Reckoning with the Dead: The Larsen Bay Repatriation Case and the Smithsonian Institution. Tamara L. Bray and Thomas W. Killion, eds. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press. Pp. 122-l36.

 

Dumond, Don E.

1965 On Eskaleut Linguistics, Archaeology, and Prehistory. American Anthropologist 67:1231-1257.

 

Dumond, Don E.

1994 The Uyak Site in Prehistory. In Reckoning With the Dead: The Larsen Bay Repatriation Case and the Smithsonian Institution. Tamara L Bray and Thomas W Killion, eds. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press. Pp. 43-53.

 

D'Wolf, John

1968 A Voyage to the North Pacific. Fairfield, Washington: Ye Galleon Press.

 

Dyson, George

1986 Baidarka, Edmonds: Alaska Northwest Publishing Co.

 

Eliot, John L.

1993 Kodiak, Alaska's Island Refuge. National Geographic, November Pp. 35-58.

 

Endter-Wada, Joanna, Rachel Mason, Jon Hofmeister, and Joanne Mulcahy

1993 The Kodiak Region. In Social Indicators Study of Alaskan Coastal Villages. IV. Postspill Key Informant Summaries. Schedule C Communities, Part 2. Alaska OCS Region Socioeconomic Studies Program Technical Report No. 155. Anchorage: U.S. Department of Interior. Pp. 551-721.

 

English Bay [Nanwalek] High School and Elementary School Students

1980-1981 Alexandrovsk: English Bay in its Traditional Way. Journal of English Bay culture compiled by students. Vols. l and 2.

 

Erskine, Wilson Fiske

1962 Katmai. New York: Abelard-Schuman.

 

Fall, James A.

1991 Subsistence Uses of Fish and Wildlife and the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill. Paper presented at the 17th annual meeting of the Alaska Anthropological Association, Fairbanks, Alaska.

 

Fall, James A. and Charles J. Utermohle, eds.

1994 An Investigation of the Sociocultural Consequences of Outer Continental Shelf Development in Alaska. Alaska OCS Socioeconomic Studies Program Technical Report - Draft. Anchorage: U.S. Department of Interior.

 

Fall, James A. and Robert J. Walker

1986 Subsistence Harvests in Six Kodiak Communities, 1986. Alaska Department of Fish and Game, Division of Subsistence, Technical Paper No. 193.

 

Fedorova, Svetlana G.

1973 The Russian Population in Alaska and California, Late 18th Century - 1867. Richard A. Pierce and Alton S. Donnelly, trans. and ed. Kingston, Ontario. The Limestone Press.

 

Fitzhugh, William W. and Aron Crowell, eds.

1988 Crossroads of Continents: Cultures of Siberia and Alaska. Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press.

 

Fortuine, Robert

1985 Lancets of Stone: Traditional Methods of Surgery Among the Alaska Natives. Arctic Anthropology 22(1):23-45.

 

Fortuine, Robert

1989 Chills and Fever: Health and Disease in the Early History of Alaska. Anchorage: University of Alaska Press.

 

Gibson, James R.

1976a Imperial Russia in Frontier America: The Changing Geography of Supply in Russian America, 1784-1867. New York: Oxford University Press.

 

Gibson, James R.

1976b Russian Sources for the Ethnohistory of the Pacific Coast of North America in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries. Western Canadian Journal of Anthropology 6(1):91-115.

 

Gideon, Hieromonk

1989 The Round the World Voyage of Hieromonk Gideon, 18031809. Lydia T. Black, trans. Richard A. Pierce, ed. Fairbanks, Alaska: The Limestone Press.

 

Gibbs, George, and W. H. Dall

1877 Vocabulary of the Kaniag'mut Innuit (Kadiak Island). In Contributions to North American Ethnology. W. H. Dall. Appendix to Part I, Tribes of the Extreme Northwest. Washington: Department of the Interior, U.S. Geographical and Geological Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region. Pp. 135-142.

 

Gilman, Isabel Ambler

1928 Alaska: The American Northland. Yonkers-on-Hudson, New York: World Book Company.

 

Golder, Frank A.

1903 Tales from Kodiak Island. Journal of American Folklore 16:16-31, 85-103.

 

Golder, Frank A.

1907 A Kodiak Island Story: The White Faced Bear. Journal of American Folklore 20:296-299.

 

Golder, Frank A.

1909a Eskimo and Aleut Stories from Alaska. Journal of American Folklore 22:10-24.

 

Golder, Frank A.

1909b Primitive Warfare Among the Natives of Western Alaska. Journal of American Folklore 22:336-339.

 

Golovnin, Pavel Nikolaevich

1979 The End of Russian America: Captain P. N. Golovnin's Last Report, 1862. Basil Dmytryshyn and E. A. P. Crownhart-Vaughan, trans. and eds. Portland: Oregon Historical Society.

 

Golovnin, Vasilii M.

1985 Memorandum of Captain 2nd Rank Golovnin on the Condition of the Aleuts in the Settlements of the Russian American Company and on its Promyshlenniki. Katherine Arndt, trans. and ed. Alaska History 1(2):59-71.

 

Gormly, Mary

1977 Early Culture Contact on the Northwest Coast, 1774-1795: Analysis of Spanish Source Material. Northwest Anthropological Research Notes 11(l):l-80.

 

Graham, Frances Kelso

1985 Plant Lore of an Alaska Island. Anchorage: Alaska Northwest Publishing Company.

 

Griggs, R. F.

1914 Observations on the Edge of the Forest in the Kodiak Region of Alaska. Torrey Botanical Club Bulletin 41(7):381-385. Contributions from the Botany Department of Ohio State University No. 81.

 

Griggs, R. F.

1922 The Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes. National Geographic Society.

 

Grubis, Stephen F.

1981 Participation in Education in an Alaskan Native Community: A Case Study. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Simon Fraser University.

 

Haggerty, James C. , Christopher B. Wooley, Jon M. Erlandson, and Aron Crowell

1991 The 1990 Exxon Cultural Resource Program Site Protection and Maritime Cultural Ecology in Prince William Sound and the Gulf of Alaska. Anchorage: Exxon Shipping Company and Exxon Company, U.S.A.

 

Halferty, Z.T.

1924 Historic Kodiak. The Pathfinder 6(6):4-5, 33-38. Valdez: Pioneers of Alaska.

 

Hall, George L.

1945 Sometime Again (E'lot Neg-oo-soo-li). Seattle: Superior Publishing Company.

 

Harvey, Lola

1991 Derevnia's Daughters: Saga of an Alaskan Village. Manhattan, Kansas: Sunflower University Press.

 

Hassen, Harold

1978 The Effect of European and American Contact on the Chugach Eskimo of Prince William Sound, Alaska, 1741-1930. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee.

 

Hausler-Knecht, Philomena

1993 Early Prehistory of the Kodiak Archipelago. Paper presented at the International Seminar on the Origins, Development, and Spread of North Pacific-Bering Sea Maritime Cultures, Honolulu, Hawaii.

 

Haynes, Terry L. and Craig Mishler

1991 The Subsistence Harvest and Use of Stellar Sea Lions in Alaska. Alaska Department of Fish and Game, Division of Subsistence, Technical Paper No. 198.

 

Heizer, Robert F.

1943a A Pacific Eskimo Invention in Whale Hunting in Historic Times. American Anthropologist 45(1):120-122.

 

Heizer, Robert F.

1943b Aconite Poison Whaling in Asia and America: An Aleutian Transfer to the New World. Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin 133:415-468. Anthropological Papers No. 24.

 

Heizer, Robert F.

1952 Notes on Koniag Material Culture. Anthropological Papers of the University of Alaska 1(1):11-24.

 

Heizer, Robert F.

1956 Archaeology of the Uyak Site, Kodiak Island, Alaska. University of California Anthropological Records 17:1.

 

Hinckley, Theodore C. and Caryl, eds.

1966 Ivan Petroff's Journal of a Trip to Alaska in 1878. Journal of the West 5(1):25-70.

 

Holland, Kathryn M.

1992 In the Wake of Prehistoric North Pacific Sea Mammal Hunters. Arctic Anthropology 29(2):63-72.

 

Holmberg, H J.

1985 Holmberg's Ethnographic Sketches. M. W. Falk, ed. Fritz Jaensch, trans. Rasmuson Library Historical Translation Series, 1. Fairbanks: University of Alaska Press.

 

Hrdlicka, Ales*

1930 Anthropological Survey in Alaska: Extract from the Forty-Sixth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology. Washington: Government Printing Office.

 

Hrdlicka, Ales*

1944 The Anthropology of Kodiak Island. Philadelphia: Wistar Institute of Anatomy and Biology. Reprinted by AMS Press, New York.

 

Huggins, Eli Lundy

1981 Kodiak and Afognak Life, 1868-1870 Richard A. Pierce, ed. Kingston, Ontario: Limestone Press.

 

Impact Assessment, Incorporated

1990a Economic, Social, and Psychological Impact Assessment of the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill. Final Report for the Oiled Mayors Subcommittee, Alaska Conference of Mayors.

 

Impact Assessment, Incorporated

1990b Social and Psychological Impacts of the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill. Third Interim Report for the Oiled Mayors Study of the Economic, Social and Psychological Impacts of the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill.

 

Jackson, Sheldon

1893a Education in Alaska: 1889-90. Reprint of Chapter 17 of the Report of the Commissioner of Education for 1889-90. Whole No. 191. Washington: Government Printing Office. Pp. 1245-1300.

 

Jackson, Sheldon

1893b Education in Alaska: 1890-91. Reprint of Chapter 25 of the Report of the Commissioner of Education for 1890-91. Whole No. 203. Washington: Government Printing Office. Pp. 923-960.

 

Jackson, Sheldon

1894 Education in Alaska: 1891-92. Reprint of Chapter 28 of the Report of the Commissioner of Education for 1891-92. Whole No. 214. Washington: Government Printing Office Pp. 873-892.

 

Jackson, Sheldon

1896a Education in Alaska: 1893-94. Reprint of Chapter 12 of the Report of the Commissioner of Education for 1893-94. Whole No. 229. Washington: Government Printing Office. Pp. 1451-1492.

 

Jackson, Sheldon

1896b Education in Alaska: 1894-95. Reprint of Chapter 33 of the Report of the Commissioner of Education for 1894-95. Whole No. 231. Washington: Government Printing Office. Pp. 1424-1455.

 

Jackson, Sheldon

1898 Education in Alaska: 1896-97. Reprint of Chapter 35 of the Report of the Commissioner of Education for 1896-97. Whole No. 246. Washington: Government Printing Office. Pp. 1601-1646.

 

Jackson, Sheldon

1899 Education in Alaska: 1897-98. Reprint of Chapters 31 and 32 of the Report of the Commissioner of Education for 1897 98. Whole No. 267. Washington: Government Printing Office. Pp. 1373-1432.

 

Johnson, John F. C.

1984 Chugach Legends: Stories and Photographs of the Chugach Region. Anchorage: Chugach Alaska Corporation.

 

Jordan, Richard H.

1992 Qasqiluteng: Feasting and Ceremonialism Among the Traditional Koniag of Kodiak Island. In Anthropology of the North Pacific Rim. William W. Fitzhugh and Valerie Chaussonnet, eds. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press.

 

Jordan, Richard H. and Richard A. Knecht.

1986 Archaeological Research on Western Kodiak Island, Alaska: The Development of Koniag Culture. In Late Prehistoric Development of Alaska's Native People. R. D. Shaw, R. K. Harritt, and D. E. Dumond, eds. Anchorage: Aurora IV, Alaska Anthropological Association. Pp. 225-306.

 

Jordan, Richard H. and Richard A. Knecht.

1990 Natives and Archaeologists: The Kodiak Experience. Paper presented at the Canadian Archaeological Association Meetings, Whitehorse, Yukon Territory.

 

Josephson, Karla

1974 Use of the Sea by Alaska Natives--A Historical Perspective. Alaska Sea Grant Report No. 73-11. Anchorage: Arctic Environmental Information and Data Center.

 

Kachadoorian, Reuben and George Plafker

1967 Effects of the Earthquake of March 27, 1964 on the Communities of Kodiak and Nearby Islands. Geological Survey Professional Paper 542-F. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office.

 

Kemp, Kenneth L.

1981 Differential Development of Village Size Social Units. Unpublished Ph. D. dissertation, University of New Mexico.

 

Klein, Janet

1981 A history of Kachemak Bay: The Country, The Communities. Homer, Alaska: Homer Society of Natural History.

 

Knecht, Richard

1994 Archaeology and Alutiiq Cultural Identity on Kodiak. Society for American Archaeology Bulletin 12(5):8-10.

 

Knecht, Richard A. and Richard H. Jordan

1985 Nunakakhnak: An Historic Period Koniag Village in Karluk, Kodiak Island, Alaska. Arctic Anthropology 22(2): 17-35.

 

Kodiak Area Native Association

1986-1987 Adaq'wy Oral Histories Project. Ephraim Agnot, 8/5/86; Mike and Jenny Chernikoff, with Fred and Esther Chernikoff, 10/86; Nida Chya, 7/86; Katie Ellanek, 2/86; Nick and Christine Ignatin, 7/86; John Larsen and Betty Nelson, 12/86; Larry and Martha Matfay, 2/87; Alex Panamaroff Sr., 8/86; Lawrence Panamaroff, 9/86; John and Julia Pestrikoff, 12/86. Laurie Mulcahey, interviewer. Summary of project, with excerpts from interviews, compiled in 1987.

 

Kodiak Area Native Association

1987 Adaq'wy. Report to the granting institution, the Alaska Department of Community and Regional Affairs. Kodiak: Kodiak Area Native Association.

 

Kodiak Area Native Association

1987-1990 Bobby Stamp Interviews. Four interviews by Laurie Mulcahey, 12/87, including material on land otter hunting, bear stories, and sea otter hunting. Four interviews by Deborah Robinson, in 12/88, 4/89, 10/89, and 12/89. One took place on Mission Beach while collecting sea lion whiskers with Rick and Philomena Knecht. Alutiiq Dictionary, transcribed by Deborah Robinson, 8/90.

 

Kodiak Area Native Association

1991 Lost Villages Project. Sven Haakanson Sr., 6/29/91, Eagle Harbor; George Inga Sr., 6/29/91, Eagle Harbor; Moses Larionoff, 6/28/91, Aiaktalik; Mary Morris, 7/9/91, Kanatak; Natalie Simeonoff, 7/9/91, Woody Island; Mike Tunohun, 6/28/91, Woody Island; Anakenti Zeedar, 6/28/91, Kaguyak. Deborah Robinson, interviewer.

 

Kodiak Area Native Association

1993 Alutiiq Studies Curriculum. Text, computer program, and videos.

 

Kodiak Area Native Association and the Alaska Department of Fish and Game Division of Subsistence

1983 Kodiak Island Area Local Fish and Game Resource Guide.

 

Kodiak High School students

1976-1986 Elwani/Iluani. Journal of Kodiak area culture compiled by students. Vol. 1, Nos. 1-10; Vol. 2, Nos. 1-5. Anchorage: AT Publishing.

 

Kodiak Historical Society

1976 Ashes and Water Kodiak, Alaska: Page Photo.

 

Krauss, Michael E.

1974 Native Peoples and Languages of Alaska. Fairbanks: Alaska Native Language Center, Center for Northern Educational Research, University of Alaska.

 

Krauss, Michael E.

1980 Alaska Native Languages: Past, Present, and Future. Alaska Native Language Center Research Paper No. 4. Fairbanks: Alaska Native Language Center.

 

Kutchin, Howard

1903 Report on the Salmon Fisheries of Alaska, 1902. Washington: Government Printing Office.

 

Langdon, Steven J.

1986 Commercial Fishing and Subsistence Activities. in A Description of the Economic and Social Systems of the Kodiak-Shumagin Region. William E. Davis, ed. OCS Technical Report No. 122, Minerals Management Service, Anchorage: Cultural Dynamics, Ltd. Pp. 5-196.

 

Langdon, Steve J.

1987 The Native People of Alaska Anchorage: Greatland Graphics.

 

Lantis, Margaret

1938a The Alaskan Whale Cult and its Affinities American Anthropologist 40:438-464.

 

Lantis, Margaret

1938b The Mythology of Kodiak Island, Alaska. Journal of American Folklore 51:123-172.

 

Lantis, Margaret

1947 Alaskan Eskimo Ceremonialism. American Ethnological Society Monograph 11. New York.

 

Lee, Molly

1981 Pacific Eskimo Spruce Root Baskets. American Indian Art Magazine 6(2):66-73.

 

Leer, Jeff

1978a A Conversational Dictionary of Kodiak Alutiiq. Fairbanks: Alaska Native Language Center, University of Alaska.

 

Leer Jeff

1978b Nanwalegmiut Paluwigmiut-llu Nupugnerit: Conversational Alutiiq Dictionary, Kenai Peninsula Alutiiq. Anchorage: National Bilingual Materials Development Center.

 

Leer, Jeff

1985 Prosody in Alutiiq. In Yupik Eskimo Prosodic Systems: Descriptive and Comparative Studies. Michael Krauss, ed. Fairbanks: Alaska Native Language Center Research Paper No. 7. Pp. 77-133.

 

Leer, Jeff

1991 Promiscuous Number Marking: A Northern Northwest Coast Areal Phenomenon. Paper presented at the 18th annual meeting of the Alaskan Anthropological Association, Anchorage.

 

Leer, Jeff with Nina Zeedar and other elders

1990 Classroom Grammar of Koniag Alutiiq, Kodiak Island Dialect. Fairbanks: Alaska Native Language Center, University of Alaska.

 

Liapunova, Roza G.

1994 Eskimo Masks from Kodiak Island in the Collections of the Peter the Great Museum of Anthropology and Ethnography, St. Petersburg. In Anthropology of the North Pacific Rim. William W. Fitzhugh and Valerie Chaussonet, eds. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press. Pp. 175-203.

 

Lisiansky, Urey

1968 Voyage Round the World in the Years 1803, 1804, 1805, and 1806. N. Israel.

 

Lubischer, Joseph

1988 The Baidarka as a Living Vessel. Occasional Papers of the Baidarka Historical Society No. 1. Port Moody, British Columbia.

 

Mason, Rachel

1988 Russian Orthodox Church Readers in Kodiak Area Villages. Paper presented at the 1988 Kodiak Cultural Heritage Conference, Kodiak, Alaska.

 

Mason, Rachel

1990 Final Report: Community Preparation and Response to the Exxon Oil Spill in Kodiak, Alaska. Quick Response research, Natural Hazards Research and Applications Information Center, Boulder, Colorado.

 

Mason, Rachel

1991 Writing Stories and Doing Surveys on Kodiak Island Following the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Society for Applied Anthropology, Charleston, South Carolina.

 

Mason, Rachel

1993 Fishing and Drinking in Kodiak, Alaska: The Sporadic Re-creation of an Endangered Lifestyle. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Virginia.

 

McKeown, Martha F.

1960 The Trail Led North: Monte Hawthorne's Story. Portland, Oregon: Binfords and Mort.

 

Merck, Carl H.

1980 Siberia and Northwestern America 1788-1792: The Journal of Carl Heinrich Merck, Naturalist with the Russian Scientific Expedition Led by Captains Joseph Billings and Gavril Sarychev. Kingston, Ontario: The Limestone Press.

 

Mishler, Craig

1991 From Quantitative to Qualitative: Subsistence Food Harvests and Alutiiq Cultural Traditions. Paper presented at the 18th annual meeting of the Alaskan Anthropological Association, Anchorage.

 

Mobley, Charles M., et. al.

1990 The 1989 Exxon Valdez Cultural Resource Program. Anchorage: Exxon Shipping Company and Exxon Company, USA.

 

Morehouse, Thomas A. and Marybeth Holleman

1994 When Values Conflict: Accommodating Alaska Native Subsistence. Institute of Social and Economic Research Occasional Paper No. 22. Anchorage: University of Alaska-Anchorage.

 

Morris, Judith Marek

1987 Fish and Wildlife Uses in Six Alaska Peninsula Communities: Egegik, Chignik, Chignik Lagoon, Chignik Lake, Perryville, and Ivanof Bay. Alaska Department of Fish and Game, Division of Subsistence, Technical Paper No. 151.

 

Morrison, Eric

1992 Tatitlek In Social Indicators Study of Alaskan Coastal Villages. IV. Postspill Key Informant Summaries. Schedule C Communities, Part 1. Alaska OCS Region Socioeconomic Studies Program Technical Report No. 155. Anchorage: Department of Interior Pp. 425-436.

 

Moser, Jefferson F.

1899 The Salmon and Salmon Fisheries of Alaska. Report of the operations of the U.S. Fish Commission Steamer Albatross for the Year Ending June 30, 1898. U.S. Fish Commission Bulletin for 1898, Vol. 18. Washington: Government Printing Office. Pp. 1-178.

 

Moss, Madonna L. and Jon M. Erlandson

1992 Forts, Refuge Rocks, and Defensive Sites: The Antiquity of Warfare Along the North Pacific Coast of North America. Arctic Anthropology 29(2):73-90.

 

Mulcahy, Joanne B.

1987 Reclaiming Ethnic Identity: Kodiak Island's "Aleuts." Alaska Native Magazine, April, pp. 12-14.

 

Mulcahy, Joanne B.

1988 Knowing Women: Narratives of Healing and Traditional Life from Kodiak Island, Alaska. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Pennsylvania.

 

Mulcahy, Joanne B.

1993 "How They Knew": Women's Talk about Healing on Kodiak Island, Alaska. In Feminist Messages. Joan N. Radner, ed. Urbana: University of Illinois Press. Pp. 183-202.

 

Mulcahy, Joanne B. with Mary Petersen

1993 Mary Petersen: A Life of Healing and Renewal. In Wings of Gauze: Women of Color and the Experience of Health and Illness. B. Bail and S. Cayliff, eds. Wayne State Press.

 

National Board of Antiquities (Finland)

1988 Alaska, Russian America. Exhibit Catalog. Helsinki, Finland: National Board of Antiquities.

 

National Geographic

1994 Island of the Giant Bears. Video.

 

Naughton, Sharon Cissna

1978 Samovars in Kodiak: Two Cultures Met. Kodiak, Alaska: Kodiak Historical Society.

 

Oleksa, Michael

1982 Three Saints Bay and the Evolution of Aleut Identity. Anchorage: Alaska Pacific University HCRS Village Histories Project.

 

Oleksa, Michael, ed.

1987 Alaskan Missionary Spirituality. New York: Paulist Press.

 

Opheim, Edward N., Sr.

1974 Dories by Opheim. Alaska 40(11):8-11, 57-58.

 

Opheim, Edward N., Sr.

1976 The Real Crust on Sourdoughs. Alaska 42(11):16-18, 66-68.

 

Opheim, Edward N. , Sr.

1977 How I Made No Money Raising Foxes. Alaska 43(6):23-25, 87.

 

Opheim, Edward N. , Sr

1981 Old Mike of Monk's Lagoon. Vantage Press.

 

Opheim, Edward N., Sr.

1984 Waves of Destruction Alaska 50(3): 30-32, 75.

 

Orth, Donald J.

1967 Dictionary of Alaska Place Names. Washington: Geological Survey Professional Paper 567.

 

Oswalt, Wendell

1979 Eskimos and Explorers Novato, California: Chandler and Sharp.

 

Oswalt, Wendell

1987 Alaskan Eskimos San Francisco: Chandler Publishing.

 

Ouzinkie High School students

1981 Ukulaha Journal of Ouzinkie culture compiled by students.

 

Palinkas, Lawrence A. , Michael A. Downs, John S. Petterson, and John Russell

1993 Social, Cultural, and Psychological Impacts of the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill Human Organization 52(1):1-13.

 

Parfit, Michael

1985 Kodiak, "Twice as Good as Anybody " Islands, February issue, pp. 40-59.

 

Partnow, Patricia

1993 Alutiiq Ethnicity. Unpublished Ph. D. dissertation, University of Alaska.

 

Pedersen, Elsa

1983 English Bay. In A Larger History of the Kenai Peninsula. Elsa Pedersen, ed. Chicago: Adams Press. Pp. 153-156.

 

Pedersen, Elsa and Billi JoAnne Kaho

1983 Seldovia. In A Larger History of the Kenai Peninsula. Elsa Pedersen, ed. Chicago: Adams Press. Pp. 141-150.

 

Peterson, Judy

1987 Our Aleut History: Alaskan Natives in Progress. Videotape.

 

Petroff, Ivan

1884 Report on the Population, Industries, and Alaska Washington: Department of Interior, Tenth Census.

 

Pierce, Richard A , ed.

1978 The Russian Orthodox Religious Mission to America. Colin Bearne, trans. Kingston, Ontario: Limestone Press.

 

Pierce, Richard A.

1990 Russian America: A Biographical Dictionary Kingston: Limestone Press.

 

Pinart, Alphonse

1871-72 Field Notes from the Kodiak Island Region. Manuscript.

 

Plafker, George, Reuben Kachadoorian, Edwin B. Eckel, and Lawrence R. Mayo

1969 Effects of the Earthquake of March 27, 1964 on Various Communities. Geological Survey Professional Paper 542-G. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office.

 

Port Graham High School and Elementary Students

1981-82 Fireweed Cillqaq. Kenai Peninsula Borough School District.

 

Porter, Robert P.

1893 Report on the Population and Resources of Alaska at the Eleventh Census: 1890. Department of the Interior, Census Office. Washington: Government Printing Office.

 

Pullar, Gordon L.

1989 The Hrdlicka* Legacy and Koniag Spirits. Paper presented at the Circumpacific Prehistory Conference, Seattle, Washington.

 

Pullar, Gordon

1990a The Kodiak Island Archaeological Project. In Preservation on the Reservation: Native Americans, Native American Lands and Archaeology. A. L. Klesert and A. S. Downer, eds. Navajo Nation Papers in Anthropology No. 26. Pp. 269-274.

 

Pullar, Gordon L.

1990b The Koniagmiut Renaissance. Paper prepared for the "Recapturing Heritage" Panel, Seventh Inuit Studies Conference, University of Alaska, Fairbanks.

 

Pullar, Gordon

1992 Ethnic Identity, Cultural Pride and Generations of Baggage: A Personal Experience. Arctic Anthropology 29(2): 198-209.

 

Pullar, Gordon L.

1994a Alutiiq. In Native America in the Twentieth Century: An Encyclopedia. Mary B. Davis, ed. New York: Garland Publishing Pp. 29-31.

 

Pullar, Gordon L.

1994b The Qikertarmiut and the Scientist: Fifty Years of Clashing Views. In Reckoning With The Dead: The Larsen Bay Repatriation and the Smithsonian Institution. Tamara L. Bray and Thomas W. Killion, eds. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press.

 

Pullar, Gordon L. and Philomena Hausler-Knecht

1990 Continuous Occupation of Larsen Bay/Uyak by Qikertarmiut. Paper prepared for the Native American Rights Funds.

 

Rathburn, Robert R.

1981 The Russian Orthodox Church as a Native Institution Among the Koniag Eskimo of Kodiak Island, Alaska. Arctic Anthropology 18(1):12-22.

 

Rooks, Curtiss Takada

1992 Kodiak Area Periphery, Native Communities. In Social Indicators Study of Alaskan Coastal Villages. IV. Postspill Key Informant Summaries. Schedule C Communities, Part 2. Alaska OCS Region Socioeconomic Studies Program Technical Report No. 155. Anchorage: Department of Interior. Pp. 723-849.

 

Roppel, Patricia

1986 Salmon from Kodiak: A History of the Salmon Fishery of Kodiak, Alaska. Alaska Historical Commission Studies in History No. 216.

 

Roscoe, Fred

1992 From Humboldt to Kodiak, 1886-1895: Recollections of a Frontier Childhood and the Founding of the First American School and the Baptist Mission at Kodiak, Alaska. Stanley N. Roscoe, ed. Kingston, Ontario: The Limestone Press.

 

Rostad, Michael

1988 Time to Dance: Life of an Alaska Native. Anchorage: AT Publishing.

 

Russell, Patricia N.

1991 Kodiak Alutiiq Plantlore. Manuscript.

 

Sawden, Feona J.

1983 Port Graham. In A Larger History of the Kenai Peninsula. Elsa Pedersen, ed. Chicago: Adams Press. Pp. 151-152.

 

Shelikhov, Grigorii I.

1981 A Voyage to America 1783-1786. Marina Ramsay, trans. Richard A. Pierce, ed. Kingston, Ontario: The Limestone Press.

 

Simon, James J. K. and Amy F. Steffian

1994 Cannibalism or Complex Mortuary Behavior: An Analysis of Patterned Variability in the Treatment of Human Remains from the Kachemak Tradition of Kodiak Island. In Reckoning With the Dead: The Larsen Bay Repatriation and the Smithsonian Institution. Tamara L. Bray and Thomas W. Killion, eds. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press. Pp. 75-100.

 

Smith, Barbara S.

1980 Orthodoxy and Native Americans: The Alaskan Mission. Syosset, New York: St. Vladimir's Seminary press.

 

Smith, Barbara S. and Redmond J. Barnett, eds.

1990 Russian America: The Forgotten Frontier. Tacoma: Washington State Historical Society.

 

Smithsonian Institution

n.d. Hrdlicka's* Excavations at Uyak Bay. Video.

 

Stanek, Ronald T.

1982 Natural Resource Harvests at Port Graham and English Bay, 1982: An Interim Report. Alaska Department of Fish and Game Division of Subsistence, Technical Paper No. 32.

 

Stanek, Ronald T.

1985 Patterns of Wild Resource Use in English Bay and Port Graham, Alaska. Alaska Department of Fish and Game Division of Subsistence, Technical Paper No. 104.

 

Stanek, Ronald T., James A. Fall, and Dan Foster

1982 Subsistence Shellfish Use in Three Cook Inlet Villages, 1981: A Preliminary Report. Alaska Department of Fish and Game, Division of Subsistence, Technical Report No. 34.

 

Stanek, Ronald T.

1991 Contemporary Wild Food Dishes Prepared in Port Graham and English Bay. Paper presented at the 18th annual meeting of the Alaskan Anthropological Association, Anchorage.

 

Stevens, Gary

1990 The Woody Island Ice Company. In Russia in North America: Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Russian America, Sitka, Alaska, August 19-22, 1987 Richard A. Pierce, ed. Kingston: Limestone Press Pp. 192-212.

 

Stover, Paul H "Smokey"

1984 The Retired Failure. Bryn Mawr: Dorrance & Co. First published in 1976.

 

Stratton, Lee

1990 Resource Harvest and Use in Tatitlek, Alaska. Alaska Department of Fish and Game Division of Subsistence, Technical Paper No. 181.

 

Stratton, Lee and Evelyn B. Chisum

1986 Resource Use Patterns in Chenega, Western Prince William Sound: Chenega in the 1960s and Chenega Bay 1984-1986. Alaska Department of Fish & Game Division of Subsistence, Technical Paper No. 139.

 

Taylor, Kenneth

1964 A Demographic Study of Karluk, Kodiak Island, Alaska, 1962-1964. Arctic Anthropology 3(2):211-240.

 

Tikhmenev, Petr Alexandrovich

1978 A History of the Russian-American Company. Richard A. Pierce and A. S. Donnelly, trans. and eds. Seattle: University of Washington Press.

 

Tikhmenev, Petr Alexandrovich

1979 A History of the Russian-American Company. Vol. 2: Documents. Dmitri Krenov, trans. Richard A. Pierce and Alton S. Donnelly, eds. Kingston, Ontario: The Limestone Press.

 

Townsend, Joan B.

1980 Ranked Societies of the Alaska Pacific Rio. In Alaska Native Culture and History. Y. Kotani and W. Workman, eds. Senri Ethnological Series No. 4. Senri, Osaka (Japan): National Museum of Ethnology. Pp. 123-156.

 

Townsend, Joan B.

1983 Pre-contact Political Organization and Slavery in Aleut Society. In The Development of Political Organization in Native North America. Elizabeth Tooker, ed. Philadelphia: American Ethnological Society. Pp. 120-132.

 

Tuten, Merry Allyn

1977 A Preliminary Study of Subsistence Activities on the Pacific Coast of the Proposed Aniakchak Caldera National Monument. Cooperative Park Studies Unit Occasional Paper No. 4. Fairbanks: University of Alaska.

 

United States Fish and Wildlife Service

1989 Kodiak National Wildlife Refuge: Final Comprehensive Conservation Plan, Environmental Impact Statement, and Wilderness Review. Anchorage: U.S. Department of Interior.

 

Urcid, Javier

1994 Cannibalism and Curated Skulls: Bone Ritualism on Kodiak Island. In Reckoning With the Dead: The Larsen Bay Repatriation and the Smithsonian Institution. Tamara L. Bray and Thomas W. Killion, eds. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press. Pp. 101-121.

 

Sister Victoria

1974 The Russian Experience. In The Native, Russian and American Experiences of the Kenai Area of Alaska. James C. Hornaday, ed. Prepared for the Conference on Kenai Area History, Kenai Central High School, Kenai, Alaska, November 7-8, 1974. Pp. 45-76.

 

Vick, Ann, ed.

1983 The Cama-i Book. Garden City, New York: Anchor Books.

 

Wennekens, Alix Jane

1985 Traditional Plant Usage by Chugach Natives Around Prince William Sound and the Lower Kenai Peninsula. Unpublished M.A. thesis, University of Alaska-Anchorage.

 

White, Mark

1973 Steaming Hot Alaskans, The Banya Alaska 39(11):16-17.

 

Will, Anne M.

1981 A History of the City of Kodiak. Anchorage: Alaska Historical Commission.

 

Williams, Ann Elizabeth

1994 Father Herman: Syncretic Symbol of Divine Legitimation. Unpublished M.A. thesis, Department of Anthropology, University of Alaska-Fairbanks.

 

Williamson, Harriet

1941 Kodiak Grows Up. Alaska Sportsman 7(7):14-15, 22-24.

 

Woodbury, Anthony C.

1984 Eskimo and Aleut Languages. In Handbook of North American Indians. Vol. 5: Arctic. David Damas, ed. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press. Pp. 49-63.

 

Woodworth, Jim

1958 The Kodiak Bear. Harrisburg, Pennsylvania: The Stackpole Company.

 

Workman, William B.

1980 Continuity and Change in the Prehistoric Record from Southern Alaska. In Alaska Native Culture and History. Y. Kotani and W. Workman, eds. Senri Ethnological Series No. 4. Senri, Osaka (Japan): National Museum of Ethnology. Pp. 49-101.

 

Workman, William B.

1992 Life and Death in a First Millennium A.D. Gulf of Alaska Culture: The Kachemak Tradition Ceremonial Complex. In Ancient Images, Ancient Thought: The Archaeology of Ideology. S. Goldsmith, S. Garvie, D. Selin, and J. Smith, eds. Proceedings of the 23rd Annual Chacmool Conference. Calvary Archaeological Association.

 

Yarborough, Linda F.

1993 Prehistoric Use of Cetacea Species in the Northern Gulf of Alaska. Paper presented at the 20th Annual Meeting of the Alaskan Anthropological Association, Anchorage.

 

Yesner, David R.

1992 Evolution of Subsistence in the Kachemak Tradition: Evaluating the North Pacific Maritime Stability Model. Arctic Anthropology 29(2):167-181.

 

Zerries, Otto and Jean-Loup Rousselot

1978 Die Eskimo. Herausgegeben vom Staatlichen Museum fur Volkerkunde. Munich- Das Museum.

 

 

The University of Alaska Fairbanks is an Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity employer, educational institution, and provider is a part of the University of Alaska system. Learn more about UA's notice of nondiscrimination.