 Our Language Our Souls:
The Yup'ik bilingual curriculum of the
Lower Kuskokwim School District: A continuing success story.
Edited by Delena Norris-Tull,
University of Alaska Fairbanks,
School of Education, Fairbanks, Alaska
copyright
1999
Introduction to the Yup'ik Language
and Culture Programs of the Lower Kuskokwim School District
By Delena Norris-Tull - University of
Alaska Fairbanks, Fairbanks, Alaska
Copyright 1999
With information contributed by
Beverly Williams Director, Curriculum/Bilingual Department, Lower
Kuskokwim School District, Bethel, Alaska
In May of 1998, Delena had the privilege to participate in the
Lower Kuskokwim School District (LKSD) Bilingual Curriculum Summer
Institute, held at the Kuskokwim Campus (a branch of the University
of Alaska Fairbanks) in Bethel, Alaska. This was the fourth annual
institute set up for the purpose of providing professional
development for the district's bilingual teachers and instructional
aides. The institute also involves those individuals in developing
instructional materials for the LKSD bilingual curriculum.
A number of aspects of the LKSD bilingual programs have resulted
in a curriculum that is perhaps unique in the nation. As are all
bilingual programs in the United States, the LKSD programs were begun
with the idea that students who are not proficient in English need
assistance in order to succeed in English in school. However, the
LKSD program has moved beyond just giving children a little extra
attention in the learning of English as a Second Language. The LKSD
programs now focus on ways of enabling students to become fluent in
both English and the local Native language. And as the local
communities, Alaska Native teachers, parents, and Elders have become
more and more involved in program planning and decision making, the
bilingual programs have evolved into something with a much more
wide-ranging scope.
The Yup'ik programs have begun to focus on how best to restore and
rejuvenate a declining indigenous language and culture. The programs
go beyond just teaching the language and now incorporate as many
aspects of local traditional culture as possible. The Yup'ik language
and culture programs rely on community input and support, in
particular that of the village Elders, who are the long-acknowledged
sources of the knowledge and wisdom that must be passed from one
generation to the next.
From the point of view of Alaska Natives, survival of their unique
language is synonymous with survival of their unique cultural
heritage. And survival of their cultural traditions is synonymous
with survival. In a state with such a harsh climate and with such
isolated villages, survival truly is dependent on the knowledge and
skills that Alaska Natives have accumulated over thousands of years
of living in the wilderness known as Alaska.
Several models of Yup'ik Language and Culture programs are being
developed and implemented in the school district. Each local advisory
school board (ASB) determines which program will be incorporated in
the local school. And as word of the successes of programs in other
villages reaches throughout the region, schools revise and modify
their programs, attempting to find the particular model of bilingual
education that best serves their local situation.
The Yup'ik First Language (YFL) program serves communities where
the majority of students come to school as fluent speakers of Yup'ik.
As of spring 2000, 13 schools utilize a YFL program. This program
takes advantage of the fact that the students already have a strong
language base (Yup'ik) within which to begin learning. These students
begin their school learning in Yup'ik and are introduced to English
as a Second Language. The language of instruction for grades K-3 is
Yup'ik, with an English as a Second Language (ESL) component in each
grade, and increasing amounts of English used in instruction each
year.
The Yup'ik Two-Way Immersion program serves communities where at
least half of the students speak Yup'ik and about half speak
predominantly English. In 2000, five villages use this bilingual
program. In these communities, Yup'ik is the first language of most
adults, but most parents speak English to their children. In two
villages using the two-way immersion programs, the language of
instruction is about 90% in Yup'ik in kindergarten, with oral
instruction in English increasingly used through grade three. Each of
the primary grades has an English as a Second Language component.
Various degrees of two-way immersion are currently used in three
other village schools in the primary grades. This program is becoming
prevalent in communities that are concerned that they have already
lost much of the Native language. These communities have expressed a
desire to provide training in the Native language to all their young
people. And in an effort to raise truly bilingual children, some
parents have begun to speak mainly in Yup'ik to their young children.
The third program, the Yup'ik (or Cup'ig) One-Way Immersion
program operates in two communities where Yup'ik/Cup'ig is still
spoken by many adults and Elders, but parents speak English to their
children. Few to no children come to school fluent in Yup'ik.
Currently, one-way immersion programs occur in Mekoryuk and in one
primary school in Bethel. The goal of the program is language
restoration, as children who speak only English are introduced to
Yup'ik/Cup'ig in their primary grades by way of immersion in the
language. Instruction in English is introduced gradually. The Yup'ik
immersion school in Bethel is attended by children who speak no
Yup'ik. The parents have expressed a desire for their children to
gain fluency in Yup'ik. Attendance at the immersion school is
optional. Most children who attend come from a Yup'ik background, but
a few have parents who are not Yup'ik. For these children, learning
Yup'ik opens up a doorway of communication with Yup'ik parents and
Elders in their community - a doorway to the past that also holds
promise for their future.
Yup'ik (or Cup'ig) Second Language (YSL) programs serve
communities (or grade levels) in which children typically speak only
English. Many adults are of Yup'ik heritage, but parents typically
speak English to their children. Sometimes, the grandparents of these
students are fluent Yup'ik speakers who speak little or no English.
In this program, Yup'ik is taught for 30-50 minutes each day or three
days per week, and is taught as a second language. Three schools in
Bethel and three village schools have YSL programs. In Bethel
Regional High School, participation in a YSL class is optional.
The success of the YFL and immersion programs has convinced more
and more local schools to adopt these modes of instruction. Currently
only one village school with a high percentage of Yup'ik speaking
children offers a Bilingual/Bicultural program that does not focus on
early instruction in Yup'ik. In Nightmute, the primary teachers speak
English. Yup'ik culture and language is taught only 30-50 minutes
daily in grades K-6. A Yup'ik instructional aide assists the English
speaking teacher by providing Yup'ik explanations and translations as
needed in primary grades.
In addition to the above programs, each school also has
English as a Second Language or English Language Development
programs. These programs are coordinated with the Yup'ik language
programs to assist students with limited English proficiency to gain
fluency and literacy in English.
The Lower Kuskokwim School district has put a large amount of
effort and financial resources into the development of curriculum
materials in Yup'ik, to the extent that the school district has its
own publishing
company. No other bilingual program in the state has gone as far
as the Lower Kuskokwim School District in its development of
curricular materials and curriculum planning - and yet there is still
so far to go.
Why should we have Alaska Native language programs?
Many individuals in Alaska and around the nation do not yet
support the concept of teaching non-English proficient children in
their dominant language first. The general attitude seems to be that
somehow we are holding these children back by allowing them to use
their native language as a crutch. However, we have many years of
evidence that forcing children who do not know English to speak and
learn only in English has not been effective. One has only to look at
the dismal reports of low achievement in bilingual communities
nationwide to be convinced that what we have been doing in the past
simply has not worked. It is not that bilingual education itself is
not valuable, rather it is that the task is so great and requires
such great effort, that the meager attempts of the past have often
not been effective. In most instances, school administrators have
failed to acknowledge the complex mix of factors that have
contributed to the problem young children have who enter schools not
speaking English.
The United States is not the only nation in the world with a
multilingual population. But we seem to be one of the few that
considers multilingualism to be a problem rather than a benefit. In
nations in which speaking more than one language is accepted as a
normal way of life, children readily gain proficiency in more than
one language. Indeed, in many nations of Europe and Africa, it is
common for children and adults to speak two, three, or even more
languages fluently. The countries that experience a problem with
multilingualism seem to be those countries that attempt to force some
groups of individuals to give up their native tongue in favor of the
language of the ruling class. South Africa has experienced this
problem, as has New Zealand. And in the United States, in all pockets
of the country where a group of individuals speaks a native language
other than English, we have a long tradition of suppression of that
language and humiliation of the children who speak it. In south
Texas, for example, where Spanish has been the majority language for
hundreds of years, recent generations of children who came to school
speaking only Spanish were forbidden to speak Spanish at school, were
punished for doing so, and were given instruction only in English.
The early Alaskan church-run schools of the Russian Orthodox
missions, and, after 1890, the Jesuits and Moravians, allowed the use
of indigenous languages in instruction in schools (in fact, these
churches were instrumental in producing the first written forms of
the Alaska Native languages). However, in the 1880s, Presbyterian
missionary Sheldon Jackson began a policy of prohibiting indigenous
languages in the mission schools he managed (which included the
missions of numerous protestant denominations). When he became
Commissioner of Education, he proposed a policy of prohibition of
indigenous language use in all Alaskan schools. This policy came into
full force by about 1910 (for further details, refer to Alaska
Native Languages: Past, Present, and Future by Michael Krauss,
1980, Alaska Native Language Center Research Papers Number 4). From
that time period until the passage of the Bilingual Education Act in
1968, children in Alaskan schools suffered severe treatment for
speaking their Native languages in schools. There are numerous
reports of abuse of children caught speaking their Native languages
in school. Children have been beaten, humiliated, and forced to kneel
on marbles or rice for several hours (personal interviews, anonymous
sources, 1998). As those children grew into adulthood, they refrained
from speaking their indigenous languages to their own children, to
protect their children from similar abuse and because many had come
to believe the myth perpetuated by schools that their children were
better off not knowing their own languages.
The result of this hegemony (domination) of the white
English-speaking culture over Alaska Native populations has been
tragic. In the 1990s, "students in over one-third of Alaska's school
districts scored on average below the 22nd percentile (on
standardized achievement tests) in either reading, mathematics, or
language arts at the 4th, 6th, or
8th grade. On average, Natives constituted 87% of the
children in these districts. Nineteen of the 20 lower-performance
districts had populations that were 60-98% Native students." (Alaska
Natives Commission. 1993. Report of the Education Task Force.)
The passage of the federal Bilingual
Education Act (also known as Title
VII) in 1968 opened up the door for using non-English languages
in instruction in American schools. However, many schools have
remained opposed to the use of indigenous languages in the
instruction of young children.
Another sentiment I have heard all too often voiced by
non-Natives
in urban areas of Alaska is that Alaska Native children do not
succeed in schools because their parents do not support their
education. My visits to over 30 rural villages in southwest and
western Alaska have convinced me that this is far from the truth.
Emphasizing the importance with which rural residents have placed
their children's schooling, Michael Krauss (personal interview,
August 28, 2000) commented that, "The fact that rural Alaska Natives
settled into permanent villages entails a deliberate decision by
families to abandon traditional economy in order to send their
children to school." The individuals, young parents and Elders alike,
that I have visited in rural Alaska by and large are convinced that
the only possibility for success that their children have is if they
can succeed in English-speaking schools. However, they also see that
the manner in which their children (and themselves) have been taught
in the past not only has failed to provide their children with the
tools for success in the English-speaking world, but also has
deprived them of the knowledge and skills they need to survive in the
everyday world of rural Alaska. Clearly something has gone terribly
wrong, and while hundreds of different remedies have been suggested
by thousands of different individuals, the sustained efforts of
bilingual programs, such as the Yup'ik language and culture programs
in the Lower Kuskokwim School District, are the only efforts that
have begun to demonstrate success.
Evidence of success
Beverly Williams has been accumulating data on the success of
children in the Lower Kuskokwim School District in reading and
writing in English and mathematics over a number of years. In
analyzing standardized test scores of high school juniors and seniors
in 1997 and 1998, she found that Yup'ik speaking children who had
begun their primary literacy development in Yup'ik scored higher in
standardized tests in English reading and writing and mathematics and
also scored higher on the Test of English as a Foreign Language than
did those Yup'ik speaking children who had begun their literacy
instruction in an English only program. The student data will
continue to be analyzed to document whether this trend is sustained
over time.
The success of the Alaska Native language bilingual programs is
finally gaining acknowledgment statewide. In May 2000, the Alaska
legislature took a step that came as a pleasant surprise to those
involved with Alaska Native education. The 21st state
legislature passed Senate Bill No. 103, known as the Native Language
Education Act. This bill states: "The legislature finds that
(1) Alaska's indigenous Native cultures and languages are unique,
essential elements of Alaska's heritage;
(2) Alaska's indigenous Native languages are an integral part of
Alaska Native people's culture and well-being;
(3) knowledge of one's indigenous language is important for the
development of social skills and self-esteem; it further contributes
to the development of the individual and the ability to communicate;
(4) translations from a Native language into English result in the
loss of context and deprivation of the full range of social and
cultural understanding necessary to function in the individual's
environment;
(5) when Native children are proficient in their primary
indigenous language, they are more likely to do well in school; they
also develop a higher degree of proficiency in English; (6)
historically, Alaska Native children first learned their Native
language in their homes and communities, but, with the passing of
Native Elders and with a current generation of parents who are not
fluent in their Native language, younger generations are less
knowledgeable about their language and culture;
(7) the loss of indigenous Native languages dates back to the late
1800's when mainstream American missionaries enforced federal
policies that forbade the use of Native languages, punished children
for speaking their own language, and urged parents to speak only
English to their children;
(8) the continuation of "no Native language" policies in
federal,
territorial, and state
school systems between 1910 and 1970 resulted in the loss of many
Native languages;
(9) the fact that only two of the 20 Alaska Native languages are
fluently spoken by children today is an indicator of the impending
extinction of Native languages;
(10) unless action is taken, by the year 2055 only five
of the 20
Alaska Native languages will be spoken by anyone, and soon thereafter
the Native languages of Alaska may vanish."
As a result of these findings, SB 103 states that, "A school
board
shall establish a local Native language curriculum advisory board for
each school in the district in which a majority of the students are
Alaska Natives and any school district with Alaska Native students
may establish a local Native language curriculum advisory board for
each school with Alaska Native students in their district. If the
local Native language curriculum advisory board recommends the
establishment of a Native language education curriculum for a school,
the school board may initiate and conduct a Native language education
curriculum within grades K through 12 at that school."
At the same time, national education officers are also voicing
support for the types of programs being established in rural Alaska.
In the March 22, 2000 volume of the national newspaper Education
Week, the front page story states, "In his first comprehensive
address on Hispanic education during his seven years in office,
Secretary of Education Richard W. Riley last week promoted a
bilingual teaching strategy intended to help students learn two
languages at the same time. So-called dual-immersion programs, in
which native English-speaking and non-English-speaking students learn
together in the same class, are an idea whose time has come in a
global economy, Mr. Riley said." The articles goes on to say that
"about 260 dual-immersion programs are in place in U.S. schools now,
a number Mr. Riley would like to see expand to 1000 or more in coming
years."
Why have the Yup'ik programs developed before other Alaska
Native language programs?
How has it occurred that such variety and scope of Alaska Native
language programs have developed in such a remote area in western
Alaska? Of the twenty Alaska Native languages found in the state,
Yup'ik has the largest base of Native speakers. In the 1960s,
linguists at the University of Alaska began working with Yup'ik
speakers from western Alaska to develop teaching methods and
instructional materials in Yup'ik. A team of linguists, including
Irene Reed, Paschal Afcan, Osahito Miyaoka, and Michael Krauss
designed a standard writing system for Yup'ik which was then used to
assist the Yup'ik speaking teachers in writing instructional
materials in Yup'ik.
In 1968, several linguists developed a proposal for training
Yup'ik speaking teachers for bilingual education programs. Irene
Reed, Arthur Hippler, Donald Webster, and Michael Krauss presented
the proposal to the Alaska State Commission for Education. The
proposal was turned down. In 1969, following an international
conference which demonstrated the success of using indigenous
languages in bilingual classrooms, Frank Darnell teamed with the
Alaskan linguists and succeeded in convincing the Bureau of Indian
Affairs and the State Operated School System to start a Yup'ik
bilingual program. The proposed program was tested in four schools in
1970 in the Lower Kuskokwim region. The first year was so successful
that the program was extended to nine additional schools the
following year, including several schools in the Southwest Region
School District.
Michael Krauss, professor emeritus at the University of Alaska
Fairbanks, and one of the premier researchers of Alaska Native
Languages, considers Yup'ik the Alaskan language with the greatest
potential for surviving the 21st century. Many villages in
the LKSD service region still have the majority of children coming to
school speaking Yup'ik. Many village Elders speak little or no
English. The situation in the region served by the Lower Kuskokwim
School District is unique in that, for the first time in many years,
communities are experiencing an increase in the number of speakers of
Yup'ik.
Limitations to the development of Alaska Native Language
programs
The Yup'ik language and culture programs have been in operation
with varying degrees of emphasis since the 1970s. Forces that work
against bilingual education have made it challenging to maintain and
enlarge upon these programs. The amount of sustained effort and
funding that has been essential to the success of these programs so
far is unprecedented in the state and may not be possible in other
regions. In many regions of the state, high turnover rates in
district office administrators have too often been the downfall of a
potentially successful program. The LKSD has been fortunate to have a
relatively stable district office staff over the past decade. And due
to the sustained efforts at developing local Alaska Natives as
teachers and administrators, the school district has a reasonable
chance of maintaining its focus should current administrators leave.
Many other school districts in the state lack the stability and
the numbers of staff with a long-term commitment to the local region
to keep a new program in operation long enough to reap the benefits.
Nevertheless, many communities are willing to give it a try. Alaska
Native language programs are rapidly developing all over the state.
But what does it take to have a successful Alaska Native language
program? It takes much more than desire and it takes more than even
money to successfully develop an Alaska Native Language program. The
LKSD has tackled the obstacles on many fronts. They have recognized
that the first thing they must have is a large number of Alaska
Native teachers. No other district in the state has put forth such a
long-term sustained effort to develop Alaska Native teachers from
within local communities. The district has provided financial
assistance, mentors, and even tutors, to their classified staff who
showed potential as classroom teachers. And, once those individuals
have obtained a teaching license, the school district has jumped at
the chance to hire them to teach in its schools, showing a commitment
to Alaska Native education that has not always been in evidence in
other parts of the state. In a state where the number of Alaska
Native licensed teachers is less than 5%, the Lower Kuskokwim School
District now has 30 percent Alaska Native teachers. But in a school
district with 91 percent Alaska Native students, this is still not
enough.
As the LKSD discovered early on, having a lot of Alaska Native
teachers does not equate to having a lot of teachers qualified to
teach Alaska Native language and culture classes. And as the school
district has also discovered, offering a unique language program
means offering a program that has no instructional support materials.
The district has tackled both of these challenges by providing
extensive professional development training each summer since 1995 in
a four-week summer bilingual institute. That each summer the housing
capacity of the summer institute is completely filled, and that many
teachers return to the institute year after year, at a time of year
when summer subsistence harvest activities are just beginning to gear
up, attests to the value these individuals and communities place on
the Yup'ik language and culture programs.
The LKSD has been fortunate in that most of their Native teachers
are fluent Yup'ik or Cup'ig speakers. In other regions of the state,
many Native teachers do not know their native language. However, even
in the LKSD region, as most of these teachers learned their language
orally and not as a written language, many of them have had to
develop their reading and writing skills in their native language as
adults. The summer institutes provide training in Yup'ik orthography,
the spelling and phonetic rules of the language. None of the Alaska
Native languages was a written language prior to the introduction of
Western culture. As a result, few Native Elders read or write their
Native language. Modern scholars of the languages have been revising
the earlier written forms of the languages to make them more
consistent. Dictionaries and grammars of the various languages are
still under development as well.
The Alaska Native
Language Center (ANLC), the only such institute in the state, is
housed at the University of Alaska Fairbanks. The ANLC is the center
for research and study of Alaska Native languages. Unfortunately, the
center received severely diminished funding from 1986 until 1996.
Reductions in numbers of faculty has meant a decreased capacity to
conduct the work needed to support Alaska Native language
revitalization and to offer training in Alaska Native languages and
Alaska Native language education to those individuals who seek it.
The Alaska Native Language program at UAF offers a bachelor's
degree in Yup'ik and in Inupiaq, and offers training in several other
Alaska Native languages. Faculty of the Alaska Native Language Center
are currently collaborating with faculty of the UAF School of
Education to provide training in Alaska Native Language education to
a group of Athabascan teachers in the Interior of Alaska. This
program, supported by federal and state grants, includes a component
that enables individuals who do not yet have proficiency in a Native
language to gain that proficiency, by taking classes at the
University of Alaska Fairbanks and/or through internships with expert
speakers in their local area. This aspect of the program makes the
program accessible to a small number of rural teachers for whom it is
not feasible to come to Fairbanks to take classes. After the
individual attains reading, writing, and oral fluency in the Native
language, they proceed with training in Alaska Native Language
education. In other words, first they learn to use the language, then
they learn to teach it to children.
The ANLC currently offers undergraduate and graduate level courses
in Alaska Native Language education. In fall 1999, the Alaska Native
Language Center and the UAF School of Education jointly made a
proposal to the Alaska Department of Education and Early Development
to offer the Alaska Native Language Program as a licensure
endorsement for teachers. The endorsement option has been approved by
the state. It has also been incorporated into a Master's of Education
degree. Unfortunately, the current level of funding approved by the
legislature to the University of Alaska is not adequate to support
much expansion of the ANLC programs. At current funding levels, the
ANLC simply cannot meet the expressed need of the schools in the
state currently developing Alaska Native Language education programs.
However, collaborations between school districts and the university
could provide additional means of support for these types of training
programs. And the ANLC has a number of program graduates with the
potential for becoming scholars of their own languages, thus
potentially providing additional expertise in various regions of the
state, the kind of expertise that is crucial in order for these types
of programs to continue to grow.
Although legislative funding still remains below the levels
needed, other initiatives occurring in the state lend support to the
task of increasing the number of Alaska Native teachers. The
University of Alaska has several programs in place focused on
developing more Alaska Native teachers, especially for rural schools.
In June 2000, the Alaska Board of Education and Early Development
approved a new limited teaching certificate for Alaska Native culture
teachers. The teaching certificate does not require the teacher to
have already completed a bachelor's degree. While similar to the
already available Type M limited teacher licensure, the new Type I
license requires the teacher to provide continuing evidence of
progress towards completion of a bachelor's degree leading to
permanent teacher licensure. The school district that nominates an
individual for the Type I license must provide mentoring and various
other types of support for the individual. And the sponsoring
University education program must provide supervision and guidance
for the individual during their internship. This unique licensure
option will complement efforts of the University of Alaska to produce
more Alaska Native teachers, especially in rural areas, and is a
much-welcomed step in the right direction.
Effective bilingual programs
The bottom line for any bilingual education program is whether or
not the program is effective in producing students who go on to
succeed academically in the regular school curriculum. For US
schools, this necessitates that students become proficient in English
reading and writing. The LKSD programs have been in existence long
enough now for the district to document positive results in regards
to school achievement and success at the high school level. Yup'ik
children who have grown up in Yup'ik language and culture school
programs are found to be reading and writing in English better than
Yup'ik children who have grown up in English-only school programs.
They appear to be better equipped to succeed in both the world within
their community and in the world outside their communities than
Native students who do not have access to education that incorporates
Alaska Native Language and Culture. And it is not just the language
program that is a key to success. The Native Culture components
augment the language components by increasing student opportunities
to link school learning to the real world in which they live and by
providing students with a sense of identity and community pride that
increases the student's desire to continue to learn.
The Lower Kuskokwim School District still has much to learn about
what models of teaching work best for what types of students. But the
incredible thing is that the district has recognized that, just as
there is not one type of student in their district, there is not just
one right way to provide bilingual education. The rest of the state
and the nation will be watching and learning from their efforts, as
the many teachers, administrators, and communities in the district
continue to explore and develop the various models of bilingual
education that have slowly been evolving within the district.
Voices of Alaska Native teachers
During the 1998 LKSD summer bilingual curriculum development
institute, Duane Magoon (one of the coordinators for the LKSD
curriculum/bilingual programs) and Delena Norris-Tull (assistant
professor of education from the University of Alaska Fairbanks)
co-taught a graduate course in Small Schools Curriculum Design as
part of the institute. As part of that course, a group of certified
teachers wrote articles describing the Yup'ik programs in which they
teach and providing recommendations for future program development.
In addition, one former Alaska Native school teacher, Theresa Arevgaq
John, who now teaches at Alaska Pacific University in Anchorage,
interviewed a number of participants and Elders and wrote an article
that provides her perspective on a Yup'ik discipline program for
schools. I am pleased to present this collection of articles to the
reader in this volume. Only three of the authors of this compilation
are not Alaska Natives, Beverly Williams, the director of the LKSD
bilingual-bicultural programs, Pamela Yancey, an LKSD teacher who
works closely with Yup'ik Native teachers in curriculum development,
and myself.
As an outsider who has been given the bounty of glimpsing briefly
into the depths of a remarkable world in western Alaska, I hope that
my presentation of these articles is received as it is presented,
with the intention of giving honor to those teachers and Yup'ik
Elders who have worked so tirelessly to provide the Yup'ik language
and culture programs to children of rural western Alaska.
Table of Contents
- Introduction to the Kuskokwim
Delta - Delena Norris-Tull
- Introduction to the Yup'ik
Language and Culture Programs of the Lower Kuskokwim
School District - Delena Norris-Tull &
Beverly Williams
- Chapter 1: The Yup'ik
First Language Program: Lower Kuskokwim School District
- Mary Lou Beaver & Evon Azean, Sr.
- Chapter 2: The Balanced
Literacy Program in Yup'ik - Pamela Yancey & Sophie
Shield
- Chapter 3: Creating Yup'ik
Books, Translating, & Orthography - Pamela Yancey
& Sophie Shield
- Chapter 4: Ayaprun Immersion
School - Loddie Ayaprun Jones
- Chapter 5: Analysis of the Yup'ik
Immersion Program In Bethel - Agatha Panigkaq
John-Shields
- Chapter 6: Yup'ik Language and Culture: A
Description and Analytical View of the 4-6 Yup'ik Thematic
Unit - Dora E. Strunk
- Chapter 7: K-3
Thematic Units and the Alaska Cultural Standards - Nita
Yurrliq Rearden
- Chapter 8: Yup'ik Language and Culture: A
Description of the 5th-12th
Yup'ik Curriculum and its Revision - Rosalie
Lincoln
- Chapter 9: Yup'ik
Discipline Practices Inerquutet and Alerquutet To
Implement Into Yup'ik Schools - Theresa Arevgaq John
- Chapter 10: Recommendations
for Yup'ik Curriculum at Lower Kuskokwim School District - Sally
Casey
email the
editor, D. Norris-Tull
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