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BIRDS
Lesson 6 Birds as Food
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from BIRD TRADITIONS
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Objectives:
1) Students will know the traditional
importance of birds in providing food and the traditions of how
this food was treated and shared in the Athabascan culture.
2) Students will identify which birds are still
of importance in the local economy.
3) Students will describe traditional ways of
hunting birds and how the modern changes in those ways have
affected bird populations of game birds.
Activities:
1) Invite elders to class to talk about
their use of birds as food.
Discuss how and when people used certain kinds
of birds and their eggs as food. Classify birds on the class list
as edible or inedible.
Illustrate with a chart, and indicate which
part of the bird is eaten.
Why are swan and crane to longer widely used?
(It's against the law!) Does anyone still eat the smaller
birds? Ask if the elders know of any food taboos, birds that
should not be eaten for cultural reasons, (for examples, see
Make Prayers to the Raven, pg. 84,89)
2) Ask the elders how the edible birds were
used and how they were preserved. Discuss how and why these ways
have changed. Include drying, jarring, freezing, etc. Find out
which birds are still regularly eaten and preserved. (Refer to
Bird Traditions, pg. 16-17)
3) Make a bar graph to show which is the
students' favorite type of bird to eat. You could include chicken
and turkey!
4) Research traditional weapons and ways of
catching birds. (Bird Traditions
..., pg. 7-11 and other ethnographic
publications).
Discuss how the advent of guns has changed hunting
and caused a decrease in some bird populations.
Preparing and Preserving Birds for Food
Because waterfowl have been consumed in larger quantity
than other kinds of birds, preparing and preserving them is described in
the
greatest detail. Although much of the same information pertains
to other game birds, an
attempt is made to note differences.
Lime Villagers consume almost all parts of a bird. People have
traditionally eaten the meat, fat, bone marrow, organs, feet, cleaned
gizzard, and head including the brain, eyes, and tongue, Due to lack
of meat, the tip of the wing beyond the last joint is not used. One
reason for not eating the intestines is that their small size makes
cleaning them difficult. An additional reason given for not consuming
waterbird intestines is that waterbirds may feed on poisonous water
plants and that the poison could be transferred to humans. Bird
feathers, bones, and beaks are not eaten because of their inedible
nature.
Depending on the species, time of year, diet, type of bone,
bird
bones differ in the amount of marrow or oil contained
in them. For example, fall
ducks are said to have more leg bone marrow than spring ducks since
in the fall a person can suck the marrow from a cracked leg bone. A
bird's fat content in other parts of its body also varies for the
same reasons. People explain that birds have a large amount of fat in
their shoulder and wing vicinity because of strength needed for
flying. Waterfowl most favored for food have the highest general fat
content including scoters, buffleheads, goldeneyes, and harlequin
ducks.
Traditionally larger feathers have been plucked soon after the
bird is harvested because the feathers are men most easily removed.
Especially in earlier days, the birds were often needed for food
immediately, a situation that has sometimes occurred in modem times.
People give accounts of being at spring camps when freshly harvested
birds were promptly cooked because there was little other food.
After waterfowl and sandhill cranes have been plucked, they are
singed over a fire to remove the pin feathers and other remaining
feathers. Skill is required to singe a bird so that the meat does not
burn and acquire an unpleasant flavor. Singeing a bird is said not
only to prevent waste of the skin, but in some people's opinion to
improve its taste. Once the bird is singed, it is washed, butchered,
and then cooked or saved for later use. At least one reason ptarmigan
and grouse are not singed is because their feathers are more easily
removed.
Boiling game birds for soup has continued to be the most common
way of cooking them. Rice and potatoes are popular additions to the
soup. For added flavor, birds may be smoked several days before being
cooked.
Especially at hunting camps, people have frequently roasted
gutted
ducks and geese slowly on a stick over an open fire. Another
traditional method of cooking waterfowl is to bake them in a hole
lined with rocks dug in
beach gravel. After wrapping the cleaned bird in birch bark, it is
covered with gravel and a fire built on the gravel.
People have smoked gutted geese and ducks in the smokehouse for
several days to a week both to flavor and preserve them. If the
weather is cool enough, the birds may be left hanging there or placed
in a cache. They have also been preserved in air-tight fish skin
sacks. When stored in a cache, birds taken in the early spring keep
for about a month during cool weather and fall birds approximately
until Christmas. The size of the birds and other factors may affect
the length of storage. Another traditional method of storing birds so
that they remain fresh-tasting is by freezing them in water-filled
birch bark containers.
HARVESTING STRATEGIES
Birds
Traditionally the upper Stony River people have used two primary
strategies for harvesting birds. In one strategy, the hunter sets
stationary objects such as snares, deadfalls, and nets. Although he
checks them regularly, he does not have to be present to catch the
bird. In the second strategy, the hunter uses bows and arrows,
throwing weapons, and in more recent times, guns. The employment of
those weapons demands the active involvement of the hunter in the
bird's death. Following is a description of the two harvesting
strategies and associated equipment.
Snaring: Snaring has been one of the most common traditional
methods of harvesting birds. An elder comments that generally it is
the most humane way because usually the bird is snared by the neck
and quickly dies. Although other birds including cranes and eagles
have been snared, waterfowl, grouse, and ptarmigan appear to have
been the most frequently snared birds. Snares have been used in the
majority of environments that birds inhabit and a variety of
techniques have been developed for employing them.
The most common snaring method which can be used for any
type of
bird is to simply set individual snares where birds tend to rest,
land, feed, or be otherwise active. The snares are hung on poles or
branches at the height of the bird's neck so that the bird is hung by
its neck and dies quickly. Snares areplaced on ice where
waterfowl are known to land, on banks and beaches where they walk to
and from the
water, on beach logs where
they rest, and in vegetation along shores where they feed. Eagle
snares have been located in
the bird's habitual landing spots and crane snares where they
feed.
People have piled willow and other shrubs inapproximately
two foot high horizontal rows
or "brush fences" and placed snares in the brush to capture
ptarmigan and grouse. Snares attached to a standing stick at the
height of the bird's neck are placed in openings in the fence. An
alternative style is to bend the branches holding the snares so that
the birds are snared by the feet. In order to remove the birds
quickly and prevent unnecessary suffering, the snares are closely
watched. Reportedly, waterbirds have also been snared in "brush
fences".
To obtain waterfowl, people have stretched lines with fastened
snares above small streams and small inlets where birds tend to land.
The birds fly or swim into the snares. Traditionally feather or
spruce root snares and spruce root or sinew lines have been employed.
Spruce roots snares are braided with three or four relatively thin
roots. Thick roots, difficult to bend and braid, are not used because
braiding gives the snare essential strength. Spruce root snares and
other snares that tend to become brittle and dry are oiled unless
they are placed near water. Although feather shaft snares become dry,
they do not break and thus do not need oiling.
To snare waterfowl on lakes, people have constructed small,
hand
built rafts. Mud added to the raft holds up the brush to which the
baited snares are fastened. The bird is snared by the head and dies
on the
raft.
Another means of snaring waterfowl on rafts is to tie a snare to a
line attached to a rock which holds in place the trigger. When the
bird steps on the trigger, it is caught by its feet and pulled by the
rock into the water where it drowns. Because the bird is tied to the
line, it is easily retrieved.
Besides spruce root snares as
described earlier, snares for birds and other wildlife have been made
from feather shafts (see Feather
Technology). Snares for capturing large birds including ducks have
been constructed from dried
moose and caribou hide and sinew.
Snares placed in wet conditions are waterproofed with spruce pitch.
An elder observes that if a person ishungry and has no snares, he can
remove the lines from his snowshoes tomake snares and replace them when game
has been caught. Lime Villagers have constructed snares from leg tendons,
especially those
of larger birds.
Nets: Nets have been stretched across streams for the same purpose
as snare lines and in the same manner except that nets may be placed
both above and below water. Another traditional means of netting
waterfowl is to stretch a trout net between two sticks on a beach.
The birds fly or walk into the net which may be baited with water
vegetation or other food.
Deadfalls: Besides snaring birds, deadfalls have been another
traditional stationary means of harvesting birds. Usually made of
wood and rocks, various types of deadfalls have been used depending
on the size and kind of bird to be harvested. Deadfalls for large
birds are constructed of logs and rocks. As is true of snares,
deadfalls are located in areas that the birds regularly inhabit. For
example, waterfowl and crane deadfalls have often been built on
beaches and geese deadfalls also in shore vegetation where they feed.
Waterfowl deadfalls made of wood have also been placed on floating
rafts.
In active hunting situations, Lime Villagers explain that
the number of needed birds, the humane treatment of the prey, and the
safety of people are the most important considerations. For example,
it is essential to know
where both hunters and non hunters inthe area are located. Before using a weapon,the
hunter judges the bird's angle, distance, speed, and the bird's awareness
of the hunter's presence.Besides wasting ammunition,misjudgment may wound
the prey or spoil the meat if hit at too
close range. In some situations, eye contact helps closely located
partners know each other's target.
Harvesting times are ideally in the early morning and early
evening when the birds tend to feed. Traditionally hunters have
preferred to be upwind from the birds with the sun at their
backs.
Weapons: The upper Stony River Dena'ina have used a variety
of
traditional weapons that involve the active participation of the
hunter in the bird's death.
These include shooting and throwing weapons, which have
for the most part been
replaced by guns. While some types of weapons had a variety of
styles, only styles employed in harvesting birds are discussed
below.
Besides the standard sharp-pointed arrow, a blunt arrow
and an arrow with a sharp, detachable tip havebeen used. The tip of the latter
type, employed primarily for
waterbirds, comes loose when it hits its target but remains attached
to the shaft by a line. The purpose of the blunt arrow used only on
ducks, grouse, and other smaller birds is to knock the bird
unconscious or quickly kill it without tearing the body. Because
larger birds such as geese and swans are only wounded by the arrow
and caused to suffer, it has not been used to hunt them. Waterfowl
and other game birds have also been shot with small, sharp arrows
that kill them when hit in the head or neck. While shooting a duck or
other similar-sized or smaller bird in the body may kill it, hitting
a swan or goose on its wings, whether with a gun or arrow, often only
wounds it. Because of this, swans especially have normally been
snared or killed with a gun but not shot with a bow and arrow.
The best wood for arrows used in wet conditions has apparently
been the hard dark wood often located onthe windward side of a spruce or on spruce
growing
in especially cold, wet conditions
(Kari 1987:28,29). The arrows are
waterproofed with spruce pitch mixed with the right amount of grease
(see ibid.:32 for more information). Arrows for hunting land birds
have been constructed of birch and not waterproofed with pitch
(ibid.:43). Hunting bows have also been crafted primarily from
birch.
An elder observes that bow and arrows
were largely replaced by .22 caliber rifles and other guns in
the early twentieth century. He notes that his grandfather always
used a bow and arrow while
his father learned to shoot
a gun. In modern times,
waterfowl and other game birds are usually taken with .22 caliber
rifles or shotguns. As wastrue in the past, hunters have continued to aim at
the bird's
head, in order
to kill the bird quickly
without unnecessary pain.
The use of slingshots
for killing ducks, grouse,
and other small game has continued into modern days.
Several people describe
making a slingshot from a piece of forked willow because willow is
both strong and flexible. The willow ends are tied together tightly
with a leather, line so that the rock fits snugly between them. A
well made slingshot can hit a fairly distant target, such as a duck
on the opposite side of the Stony River.
Besides shooting weapons, the upper Stony River people
have made
throwing weapons for harvesting birds. One kind is a throwing stick
made from a long, stiff stick carved at one end to hold a flat rock.
The normal size of stick, which can be made from any kind of wood, is
approximately an inch indiameter and 3 to 4 feet long. The length
of the stick depends
on the strength and size of
the thrower because the longer the stick, the further the rock
can be thrown. The weapon
has been used to kill
waterfowl and cranes but
not grouse and ptarmigan
because they can be harvested by a hand thrown rock.
A sling rock thrower for killing waterfowl is constructed
by tying any shaped rock to one end of askin line and whirling it to gain
speed before sending it to
its target. The longer the line, the further the rock travels and the
more dangerous the weapon is to the user because it is more likely
to hit him as he whirls it.
People with strong arms have sent rocks across the Stony River. At
least one elder remembers having used a sling rock thrower.
Although weapon technology has changed, many of the same
or
similar hunting strategies continue tote used in modern times.
Because waterfowl have been harvested in greater numbers than other
types of birds and more
strategies have been developed for hunting them, waterfowl hunting is
emphasized. Unless noted, waterfowl have been obtained in the
following ways and other kinds of birds when specifically
mentioned.
A common method of hunting with a bow and arrow or gun
has been to hide in or behind natural or constructed blinds and
wait for an opportunity to
shoot a bird. A similar way is tosneak from blind to blind, usually natural blinds,
until the
right harvesting situation occurs. Surprise hunting gives the hunter
a better choice of which bird to shoot. Hiding along a stream or lake
bend gives a hunter additional surprise advantage. The bird tends to
fall near the hunter when shot at a bend.
Especially during the early part of the season, hunters
have
waited at stream mouths and areas of ice overflow because waterfowl
tend to congregate at these first open water spots. The shallow water
on the ice allows them to be easily shot. When ice
frozen to the bottom floats
up, it brings food with it and thus more birds to the area.
After taking a first shot, the hunter has often remained very
still in the same position in hopes of getting another good shot
because the birds may circle back or come out of hiding and give him
the opportunity to try again. For example, if the bird's mate has
been shot, it may return looking for its partner. Unless the meat is
not needed, often the mate of a harvested bird is shot to prevent the
bird's emotional suffering.
Lime Villagers have harvested birds by standing in an open place
and shooting overhead flying birds. Hunters shooting over land have
attempted to aim at birds that are very likely to fall near them. If
the bird does not land in the vicinity, they make a reasonable effort
to find the bird. A child may be sent to retrieve birds on land so
that hunters may continue to harvest birds.
Because hunters know the route waterfowl take between lakes, they
may stand along the route and shoot as the birds fly above them or
they may wait near where the birds habitually land. They have tended
to avoid long shots at overhead birds because they are more difficult
to hit accurately and may only wound them. Hard to obtain ammunition
may also be wasted. For the same reasons, Lime Village hunters follow
this practice in any potentially inaccurate shooting situation.
Regardless of where the hunter is situated, if he hears shots at a
different location, he watches carefully in the event that frightened
birds may fly his way.
In the early part of the spring waterbird hunting season, a bird
that has been shot may land on unsafe ice. One way of retrieving a
bird from unsafe ice has been by throwing a line with an attached
hook at the bird and snagging it under the wing. Hooks has been made
from willow or other available brush. The added weight of the wooden
hook makes a more efficient throwing line. In the same type of
situation, long poles have also been employed.
Hunters may obtain birds from unstable ice by pushing two logs
tied together ahead of them on the ice. If the ice breaks, they hold
on to the floating logs until they reach safety. Small watercraft
have been used in the same way.
People have tried to shoot near but not directly at waterfowl
resting on unsafe ice so as to cause them to fly. They then fall when
hit in a more easily retrievable area. For example, people observe
that waterfowl like to sun themselves on ice especially during warm
afternoons.
Once the ice melts enough to allow hunting from boats, birds have
been retrieved from the water as quickly as possible. If no boat is
available to reach a bird near shore, rocks may be thrown at it to
produce waves that cause it to float to shore or it may be snagged by
a pole. Wounded birds, which may dive repeatedly, have normally been
followed until they are recovered. In shallow water where boats are
not able to travel, hunters have followed a bird on foot while
splashing a pole to chase it towards other hunters that harvest
it.
To lure birds closer, dead birds have been propped up with a stick
on ice or left floating in the water. The decoys are not left long
because they may be preyed upon. If eagles and other birds of prey
attempt to take birds that hunters desire, the birds of prey are not
shot. Ravens, which are considered scavengers, have been shot near
harvested birds to frighten predators.
Regardless of the method used, hunters continue the tradition of
being very careful to shoot where the bird can be recovered as easily
as possible. They do this both for efficiency and to prevent waste.
They also spend the necessary time to reclaim wounded birds and to
prevent suffering. A hunter knows how to twist a wounded bird's neck
so that the bird dies quickly.
Although men continue to be the primary hunters, the weapons and
strategies described here have been used by both women and men who
possess the capability.
Eggs
Lime Village people have collected a variety of wild bird eggs for
food. The most common kinds have included waterfowl, crane, gull,
ptarmigan, grouse, and large shorebird eggs. Customarily waterfowl
eggs have been gathered in greater numbers than eggs of other birds.
Not only do these waterfowl produce relatively large eggs, but they
are laid in great numbers in the spring when food may be very scarce.
People explain that elders told them not to bother bird nests unless
for food. An elder remembers that swan eggs were only harvested when
other food was lacking. Some eggs such as loon and arctic tern eggs
normally have not been harvested because of their strong taste. Among
other possible reasons such as cultural taboos, small birds eggs have
not been regularly gathered for food because of their size. All bird
eggs may serve as emergency food.
Traditionally only a select number of females of each species have
been harvested because they tend to be fatter than the males and thus
more highly preferred for food. A second essential reason is that the
development of the yolk within the female indicates that the females
of that species will soon lay eggs and that hunting of the species
should end for the spring and summer seasons. Ideally this check is
made for each species. Harvested females are boiled and consumed with
the undeveloped eggs. It was taboo for a first menstruating girl to
eat undeveloped eggs.
Eggs have been gathered soon after they have been laid. People
have not normally eaten embryo-developed eggs. Because an eggs outer
appearance apparently does not indicate the stage of embryo
development, the practice of observing growth within the female bird
is necessary for judging appropriate egg harvesting times.
People have often found eggs by watching the flight of birds to
and from their nest. They may remember the location of nests from
past years or may accidentally find them. The eggs from only a
limited number of each species are taken so as not to deplete the
eggs of any one species. Some people say to take all the eggs from a
nest of some species because the parent(s) will not return if the
nest has been touched. If the eggs are taken early in the nesting
season, certain species may make another nest.
Traditionally people have boiled eggs or fried them on hot rocks.
Eggs have apparently not been preserved for later use.
Handbook
for Culturally Responsive Science Curriculum by Sidney Stephens
Excerpt: "The information and insights contained in this document will be
of interest to anyone involved in bringing local knowledge to bear in school
curriculum. Drawing upon the efforts of many people over a period of several
years, Sidney Stephens has managed to distill and synthesize the critical ingredients
for making the teaching of science relevant and meaningful in culturally adaptable
ways." |