FNSBSD Alaska Native Education
(DRAFT)
APPENDIX B
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the
CARIBOU
in Alaska click on image for a bigger graphic |
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Alaska Department of Fish and Game
Wildlife Notebook Series
THE CARIBOU (Rangifer tarandus) is
generally associated with the arctic tundra, mountain tundra and
northern forests of North America, Russia and Scandinavia. This
species has been a distinctive part of the Alaskan fauna for
thousands of years and is resident throughout the state except for
the Southeastern Panhandle and most offshore islands.
In Europe caribou are called reindeer, but in Alaska and Canada
only the domestic forms are known by that name. All caribou and
reindeer throughout the world are considered to represent a single
species. Alaska has only the barren-ground subspecies, but east of
the Rocky Mountains, in Canada, barren-ground and woodland caribou
may be found. The barren-ground caribou generally inhabits open
tundra lands near or above timberline while the woodland caribou
prefers the forested lands of southern Canada.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: Caribou are large, rather stout deer with
large, concave hoofs that spread widely to support the animal in snow
and soft tundra and function well as paddles when it swims. Caribou
are the only members of the deer family in which both sexes grow
antlers. Antlers of adult bulls are large and massive; those of adult
cows are much shorter and are usually more slender and irregular. In
late fall caribou are clove-brown with a white neck, rump and feet
and often have a white flank stripe. The hair of newborn calves is
generally reddish-brown but may range from pale beige to dark brown.
Newborn calves weigh approximately 13 pounds and may double their
weight in 10-15 days. Adult bulls weigh 350-400 pounds. However,
weights of 700 pounds have been recorded in the Aleutian Islands.
Mature females average 175-225 pounds.
LIFE HISTORY: After a summer of grazing on succulent vegetation,
caribou enter the fall in prime condition and mature bulls frequently
have more than three inches of fat on the back and rump. The shedding
of velvet in late August and early September by large bulls marks the
approach of the rutting season. The bulls cease feeding and show
increasing aggressiveness that soon results in combat. Fights between
bulls are seldom violent and injuries are uncommon. The peak of the
breeding period in Alaska varies somewhat between herds, but most
mating occurs in October. Most yearlings are capable of breeding, but
the first breeding usually occurs at an age of 28-29 months. By late
October adult males have exhausted their summer accumulation of fat
and once again begin feeding. Bulls start to shed their antlers after
the rut and most adult males are "bald" by January. Pregnant cows and
young animals retain their antlers until May or June, but
non-pregnant females usually shed their antlers in April.
As the spring migration begins, females and many calves of the
previous year congregate as they move to the calving area. In late
May or early June a single calf is born. Newborn calves can walk
within an hour and after a few days can outrun a man and swim across
lakes and rivers.
FOOD HABITS: Like most herd animals, the caribou must keep moving
to find adequate food. This distributes feeding pressure and tends to
prevent overgrazing. Caribou are not as likely to starve to death as
moose or deer because if food is not available in one area, they move
to another.
In summer, caribou eat a wide variety of plants, apparently
favoring the leaves of willow and dwarf birch, grasses, sedges and
succulent plants. As autumn frost kills off plants and foliage, they
switch to lichens ("reindeer moss") and dried sedges. After a winter
of lichens and dried food, caribou seek out the first new growth of
spring.
MOVEMENTS: The Alaskan caribou is largely a mountain animal,
associated with areas above or near timberline, but its movements are
extensive and unpredictable. Areas known for many years to have great
numbers may suddenly be abandoned as the herd changes its migration
pattern. Such irregularities even today cause privation among the
native people in Alaska and Canada who depend upon caribou for food.
Annual caribou migrations are directional, long distance treks
occurring in spring and early summer as cows and young move to
traditional calving grounds and then to summering areas. The bulls
and some young animals follow far to the rear and scatter widely
during the summer. In midsummer, caribou are often harassed by hordes
of mosquitoes, warble flies and nose flies. Sometimes the animals
will run in a frenzy for long distances, stopping to rest only when
exhausted or when wind offers relief from the insects. In the fall
and early winter, the herd assembles for the rut and then moves to
wintering grounds.
POPULATION DYNAMICS: There are more than 400,000 wild caribou in
Alaska distributed in 13 more or less distinct herds. At present most
herds are healthy and increasing steadily, but the future can only
bring a decrease in numbers. As civilization encroaches and the back
country is developed, more and more valuable caribou habitat will be
lost.
HUNTING: The adult bull caribou is one of the most unique and
impressive trophy animals in the North. Each year several thousand
nonresident hunters travel to Alaska in search of these nomads.
However, the caribou's greatest value has been as a food animal and
more than 10,000 caribou are harvested each year by Indian and Eskimo
hunters. For many native Alaskans, the caribou is still an essential
source of food.
James E. Hemming
1970
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the
MOOSE
in Alaska
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Alaska Department of Fish and Game
Wildlife Notebook Series
THE MOOSE (Alces alces) is
the
largest member of the deer family in the world and the Alaska race
(Alces alces gigas) is the largest of all the moose. Moose are
generally associated with northern forests in North America, Europe
and Russia. In Europe they are called "elk." In Alaska, they occur in
suitable habitat from the Stikine River in the Panhandle to the
Colville River on the arctic slope. They're most abundant in the
second growth birch forests, timberline plateaus and along the major
rivers of South-central and Interior Alaska.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: Moose are improbable-appearing mammals:
long-legged in the extreme, short-bodied, with a stupendous drooping
nose, a useless "bell" or dewlap under the chin, no apparent tail,
colored a variety of brindle browns, shading from pale yellow to
almost black, depending upon the season and the age of the animal.
The hair of newborn calves is generally orange-brown fading to a
lighter rust color within a few weeks. Newborn calves weigh 28 to 35
pounds and grow to over 300 pounds within five months. The few adult
males in prime condition that have been weighed indicate that 1.000
to 1,600 pounds is the usual range; adult females weigh 800 to 1,200
pounds. Only the bulls have antlers. The largest moose antlers in
North America come from Alaska. In Alaska, trophy class bulls are
found throughout the state, but the largest come from the Alaska
Peninsula, lower Susitna Valley and Kenai Peninsula. Moose produce
trophy-size antlers when they are six or seven years old, and may
continue to produce large antlers until they are 13 or 14. In the
wild, moose may live slightly more than 20 years.
LIFE HISTORY: Moose breed in the fall, with the peak of "rut" activities
coming in late September and early October. Cow moose generally first breed
when 16 or 28 months old. They mature at 16
months on good, uncrowded range. Calves are born in late May or early
June after a gestation period of about 240 days. Older cows have
twins 15 to 60 per cent of the time and triplets may occur once in
every 1,000 births. The incidence of twinning is also related to
range conditions. On good range more cows have twins. Most calves are
born in swampy muskeg areas. A cow moose defends her newborn calf
vigorously.
Calves begin taking solid food a few days after birth and
are
weaned in the fall, at the time the mother is breeding again. The
maternal bond is not ruptured until the calves are 12 months old when
the mother forcibly ejects the 400-pound "baby" from her "parturition
pasture" just before she gives birth. Actually, calves three months
old get along fine without their mothers as several transplant herds
have been started with calves released at that age.
Adult males joust during the rut by placing their antlers together
and pushing. The winner takes the female and both bulls may receive a
few punctures or other damage.
By late October adult males have exhausted their summer
accumulation of fat and their desire for feminine company and once
again begin feeding. Antlers are shed in November, December and
January --the majority in late November and early December.
FOOD HABITS: During fall and winter moose consume prodigious
quantities of willow, birch and aspen, and in some areas actually
establish a "hedge" or browse line six to eight feet above the ground
by clipping all the terminal shoots of favored food species. Spring
is the time of grazing, and moose utilize a variety of foodstuffs,
particularly sedges, equisetum (horsetail), pond weeds and grasses.
In some areas they feed on vegetation in shallow ponds all summer. In
other situations forbs and leaves of birch, willow, alder and aspen
are the main summer diet.
MOVEMENTS: Moose are often thought of as sedentary animals. They
may be, but definite seasonal movements, associated with breeding,
parturition and treks to favored forage areas, may cover 20 to 40
miles. A tagged moose is known to have moved 60 miles.
In mountainous areas bulls spend most of the summer and
early fall at or above timberline while cows with calves prefer more dense
cover
at lower elevations. During the "rut" cows move toward timberline and
the bulls meet them halfway. Following the rut, the sexes separate
and groups of 10-20 bulls at or above timberline are not uncommon.
POPULATION DYNAMICS: Moose have a high reproductive potential and
quickly fill a range to capacity. Mother Nature in effect determines
how many moose will persist on a given unit of land. Deep crusted
snow, when combined with tired, overutilized range, can lead to
malnutrition and subsequent death of hundreds of moose and greatly
decrease the survival of the succeeding year's calves.
Moose are eaten by wolves, the only effective predator on adult
moose, and brown bears. Black bears take some calf moose in May and
June. Several parasites may be important population controls when
moose become very abundant.
HUNTING: More people hunt moose than any other of Alaska's big
game species. To many people the best hunting is during September
when the trees and shrubs are in full fall color and just being
outdoors in Alaska is, in itself, a sufficient trophy.
ECONOMIC AND FUTURE STATUS: Because moose range over so much of
Alaska, they have played an important role in the development of the
state. Market hunting was once a way of life for professional hunters
supplying moose meat to mining camps. Historically, moose were an
important source of food, clothing and implements to Athabascan
Indians dwelling along the major rivers. Today some 35,000 Alaskans
and nonresidents annually harvest 9,000 to 10,000 moose --some five
million pounds of meat --from a total population estimated at 130,000
to 160,000. Moose are an important part of the Alaskan landscape and
thousands of tourists annually photograph those animals that feed
contentedly along the highways.
Man's developments in Alaska include many alterations upon the
face of the land. These activities create conflicts between man and
moose, as moose eat crops, stand on airfields, eat young trees,
wander city streets and collide with cars and trains.
Man's removal of mature timber through logging and careless use of
fire has in general been beneficent to moose as new stands of young
timber have created vast areas of high quality moose food. The future
is reasonably bright if man learns to manipulate habitat and does not
overprotect moose so that they can ruin their future food supply.
Robert A. Rausch
Revised and reprinted 1978
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the
DALL SHEEP
in Alaska
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Alaska Department of Fish and Game
Wildlife Notebook Series
DALL SHEEP, Ovis dalli dalli,
inhabit the mountain ranges of Alaska. Dall sheep are found in
relatively dry country and frequent a special combination of open
alpine ridges, meadows, and steep slopes with extremely rugged "escape terrain" in
the immediate vicinity. They use the ridges, meadows, and steep slopes for feeding
and resting. When danger
approaches they flee to the rocks and crags to elude pursuers. They
are high country animals and are seldom found below timberline in
Alaska.
Male Dall sheep are called rams; they have massive curling
horns.
The females are called ewes and have shorter, more slender, slightly
curved horns. Rams resemble ewes until they are about three years
old, after that continued horn growth makes them easily recognizable.
Horns grow steadily during spring, summer, and early fall. In late
fall or winter horn growth slows and eventually ceases, probably
because of changes in body chemistry during the rut, or breeding
season. This yearly stopping of horn growth results in a pattern of
rings or annuli spaced along the length of the horn. These annual
rings can be distinguished from other rough corrugations on the
sheep's horns, and a sheep's age can be accurately determined by
counting these horn rings or annuli (see sketch). Dall rams as old as
16 years have been killed by hunters, and ewes have been known to
reach the age of 19 years, but usually a 12 year-old sheep is
con-sidered very old. As rams mature their horns form a circle when
seen from the side. Ram horns reach half a circle in about two or
three years, 3/4 of a circle in four to five years, and a full circle
or "curl" in seven to eight years.
LIFE HISTORY: The young, called lambs, are born in late May or
early June. As lambing approaches, ewes seek solitude and protection
from predators in the most rugged cliffs available on their spring
ranges. Ewes bear a single lamb, and the ewe-lamb pairs remain in the
lambing cliffs a few days until the lambs are strong enough to
travel. Lambs begin feeding on vegetation within a week after birth
and are usually weaned by October. Normally, ewes have their first
lamb at age three and produce a lamb annually. In stressed
populations, ewes frequently begin lambing on their second birthday
and then produce lambs in alternate years. More will be learned about
this difference as research continues.
Sheep have well developed social systems. Adult rams live in bands
which associate with ewe groups only during the mating season in late
November and early December. The horn clashing for which rams are so
well known does not result from fights over possession of ewes, but
is a means of establishing social order. These clashes occur
throughout the year (and also among females) on an occasional basis.
They occur more frequently just before the rut when rams are moving
among the ewes and meeting rams from groups other than their own.
Dall rams can sire offspring at 18 months of age, but normally they
do not participate in breeding or social activities until they
approach dominance rank (at full curl age and size).
FOOD HABITS: The diet of Dall sheep vary from range to range, but
they feed primarily on grasses and sedges. Dur-ing summer, food is
abundant, and a wide variety of plants are consumed. Winter diet is
much more limited and con-sists primarily of dry, frozen grass and
sedge stems available when snow is blown off the winter ranges. Some
popula-tions use significant amounts of lichen and moss during
winter. Most Dall sheep populations visit mineral licks during the
spring and often travel many miles to eat the soil at these unusual
geological formations. Soil eating may be caused by a mineral
deficiency or imbalance that results from the poor quality of winter
food. As several different popula-tions meet at mineral licks, ram
and ewe populations mingle and young rams join the ram band which
happens to be present at the time. This random contribution of young
rams to different ram bands benefits the sheep by maintaining genetic
diversity. Sheep are very loyal to their home ranges; after joining a
social group, sheep are never known to leave it. Mineral licks are
good spots to observe sheep because the animals are so intent on
eating the dirt they pay little attention to humans. However, major
disturbances such as low-flying aircraft or operating machinery
readily drive sheep from the mineral licks.
POPULATIONS:Dall sheep in Alaska are generally in good population
health. The remoteness of their habitat and its unsuitability for
human use protected Dall sheep from most problems in the past.
However, increasing human population and more human use of alpine
areas may cause future problems for Dall sheep. Mountain sheep in
general are extremely susceptible to diseases introduced by domestic
livestock.
If grazing of domestic sheep (or possibly cattle) occurs on their
ranges, mass die-offs from disease can be reasonably expected,
Currently, biologists believe the number of Dall sheep in Alaska is
about 70,000. Thirty thousand of these live in the Brooks Range,
15,000 in the Alaska Range, 16,000 in the Wrangell Mountains, 5,000
on the Kenai Penin-sula and the Chugach Mountains with which it is
connected, and 3,000 in the Talkeetna Mountains. The ancestral
habitat for Dall sheep, the Tanana-Yukon uplands, now contains an
estimated 1,000 Dall sheep.
Sheep typically exist at stable population levels in approximate
equilibrium with their habitat resources. Large popula-tion
fluctuations do occur, however, usually as a result of infrequent
catastrophic weather events. These events are more likely in maritime
climates, and history indicates they can be expected once in about
every 50 years. Low birth rates, predations, primarily by wolves,
coyotes, and eagles, and a difficult environment tend to keep Dall
sheep population growth rates lower than for many other big game
species. However, their adaptation to the unchanging alpine
environment seems to serve them well. They have survived for
thousands of years and are among the more suc-cessful animal groups.
HUNTING: Dall sheep produce excellent meat but are relatively
small in size (usually less than 300 pounds for rams and 150 pounds
for ewes) and it is difficult to retrieve meat from the rugged alpine
areas which they inhabit. These factors have limited sheep hunting to
a relatively few, hardy individuals whose interest is more in the
challenges and satisfactions of mountain hunting and the alpine
experience than in getting food. In some communities of the Brooks
Range, Dall sheep are hunted for subsistence. These hunts commonly
take place during winter when snow machine travel makes it easier to
reach the sheep and retrieve the meat. Recreational hunting is
limited to the taking of mature rams during August and September;
subsistence regulations commonly allow taking of all sex and age
classes of sheep. Population which support subsistence hunting must
be closely watched to assure that populations are not overex-ploited.
Many recreational hunters are very selective and choose not to kill a
ram unless it is unusually attractive, choosing to watch sheep and
share their environment instead. Likewise, viewers and photographers
of Dall sheep are attracted by the animals and their environment.
Photography of Dall sheep is popular for many visitors and residents
of Alaska and is not limited by season.
Wayne E. Heimer
1984
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the
BLACK BEAR
in Alaska
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Alaska Department of Fish and Game
Wildlife Notebook Series
BLACK BEARS, Ursus americanus, are
the most abundant and widely distributed of the three species of
bears in America and have been recorded in all states except Hawaii.
In Alaska, blacks occur over most of the forested areas of the State.
They are not found on the Seward Peninsula or north of the Brooks
Range. They also are absent from some of the large islands of the
Gulf of Alaska, notably Kodiak, Montague, Hinchinbrook and others,
and from the Alaska Peninsula beyond the area of Lake Iliamna. In
Southeastern Alaska, black bears occupy most islands with the
exception of Admiralty, Baranof, Chichagof and Kruzof. These are
inhabited by brown bears. Both species occur on the Southeastern
mainland. They are most often associated with forests, but depending
on the season of the year, they may be found from sea level to alpine
areas.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: The black is the smallest of the North
American bears. Adult bears stand about 26 inches at the shoulders
and measure about 60 inches from nose to tail. The tail is about two
inches long. Males are usually larger than females. An "average" adult male in
summer weighs about 180-200 pounds. They are considerably lighter when they emerge
from winter dormancy and may be
twenty percent heavier in the fall when they are fat.
The color of this bear over its entire range varies from jet black
to white. A very rare white or creamy phase occurs on Gribble Island
and vicinity in British Columbia. Three colors are common in Alaska.
Black is the most often encountered color but brown or cinnamon bears
are often seen in Southcentral Alaska. The rare blue or glacier phase
may be seen in the Yakutat area and has been reported from other
areas. Nearly all blacks have a patch of white hair on the fronts of
their chests.
Blacks, even the white color phase, always have brown muzzles.
They are most easily distinguished from brown/grizzlies by their
straight facial profile and their claws which are sharply curved and
seldom over one and one-half inches in length. Positive
identification can be made by measuring the upper rear molar which is
never more than one and one-fourth inches wide in the black bear and
is never less than that in the brown/grizzly bear. The size of black
bears is often overestimated.
Black bears have very poor eyesight but their senses of smell and
hearing are well-developed.
LIFE HISTORY: Mating takes place in June-July. Apart from that
time, blacks are usually solitary, except for sows with cubs. Cubs
are born the following February-March while their mothers are in
their dens. The gestation period is about seven months. The cubs are
blind, nearly hairless and weigh only a few ounces at birth. Upon
emerging from the den in May they weigh about five pounds and are
covered with fine wooly hair. They are able to follow their mothers
quite well. One to four cubs may be born but two is the usual number.
Cubs apparently remain with their mothers through the first winter
follow-ing their birth. Apparently sows breed yearly. Bears become
sexually mature at three to four years of age.
FOOD HABITS: Black bears are creatures of opportunity when it
comes to matters of food. There are, however, certain patterns of
food-seeking which they follow. Upon emergence in the spring, freshly
sprouted green vegetation is the main food item, but blacks will
readily take anything they encounter. Things such as winter-killed
animals are readily eaten, and in some areas black bears have been
found to be effective predators on newborn moose calves. As summer
progresses, feeding shifts to salmon if they are available. In areas
without salmon, bears rely primarily on vegetation throughout the
year. Berries, especially blueberries, are an important late
summer-fall food item. Bears are cannibalistic on occasion.
WINTER DORMANCY: As with brown/grizzly bears, black bears spend
the winter months in a state of semi-hibernation. Their body
temperature drops, their metabolic rate is reduced and they sleep for
long periods. This is not considered true hibernation as they do
occasionally emerge from their dens. Bears enter this dormancy period
in the fall, after most food items become hard to find and emerge
again in the spring, when food is again available. In the northern
part of their range, bears may be dormant for as long as seven to
eight months. Females with cubs usually emerge later than lone bears.
Dens may be found from sea level to alpine areas.
HUMAN UTILIZATION: Over most of Alaska, blacks are hunted as game
animals. At one time they were classified as fur-bearers and were
heavily utilized as such. Now there is a growing appreciation for
them as a trophy animal. Blacks are so common and widely distributed
that they often cause damage at homesteads, construction camps, or
even in towns, and are destroyed as nuisance animals. These
depredation kills can be minimized or eliminated if garbage and other
food items which attract them to camps and residences are eliminated.
In some localities of Alaska, black bears are themselves sought as
food. In the community of Huslia, for instance, hibernating bears are
killed, cooked and eaten by the men and boys of the community in a
traditional dinner.
The best bear hunting areas are probably from the tidal areas in
Prince William Sound southward through the panhandle of Alaska. In
these areas, bears are spotted from boats as they forage on the
beach. Late May through early June is usually the best time for such
hunting. The pelts of spring black bears make beautiful trophies if
taken before they start to shed.
If bear flesh is utilized for human food, it must be well-cooked
as Alaskan bears have been known to have trichinosis. This disease is
transmitted by eating infected meat that is not cooked thoroughly.
DANGER TO HUMANS: Bears are extremely powerful animals and
potentially dangerous to humans. They are usually highly cautious and
secretive, but if they have a food supply, they may defend it against
all intruders. Bears are found in highly urbanized areas every year,
in downtown Anchorage and Fairbanks. Encounters with humans,
especially near garbage dumps, fish drying racks, etc., frequently
occur. However, sows with cubs must always be respected. A rule of
thumb is: never come between or near a mother bear and her young. She
will attack.
Normally, these bears snort in a characteristic way and move off.
They have, however, attacked without apparent provoca-tion. Several
persons have been victims of these unprovoked attacks. People have
been maimed and some have been killed every year as a result of such
an encounter with a black bear. In general, all bears should be
considered as potentially dangerous and should be treated with
respect.
Loyal Johnson
Reprinted 1984
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the
BEAVER
in Alaska.
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Alaska Department of Fish and Game
Wildlife Notebook Series
THE BEAVER (Castor canadensis) is
North America's largest rodent. It is found throughout most of the
forested portions of the state, including Kodiak Island where it was
transplanted in 1925.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: Beavers in the wild live about 10 to 12
years. In captivity they have been known to live as long as 19 years.
Throughout their lives they continue to grow and may reach three to
four feet (0.9 to 1.2 m) long, including tail. Although most adult
beavers weigh 40 to 70 pounds (17.1 to 31.7 kg), very old, fat
beavers can weigh up to 100 pounds, or 45 kg.
The beaver's heavy chestnut brown coat over a warm, soft underfur
keeps the animal comfortable in all temperatures. Its large, webbed
feet and broad, black tail (about 10 inches long and six inches wide,
or 25 cm long and 15 cm wide) can be used as a rudder when swimming.
When slapped against the water it serves as a sign of warning, but it
can be used as a signal for other emotions as well. When the beaver
stands up on its hind legs to cut down a tree, the tail is like a
fifth leg used for balance.
A perfectly designed swimmer, the beaver's nose and ear valves
close automatically under water. Beavers' lips are loose so they can
be drawn tightly behind the protruding teeth. In this way a submerged
beaver can cut and chew wood without getting water in its mouth.
LIFE HISTORY: Beavers must be assured of two or three feet (0.6 to
0.9 m) of water year-round. Water serves as a refuge from their
enemies and they build canals to float and transport heavy objects
(food and lumber). Food for winter use must be stored under water as
well.
If the habitat does not have the necessary water level, beavers
construct dams. Each dam is a little different. A beaver works alone
or with family members to build a dam. They pile logs and trees and
secure them with mud, masses of plants, rocks and sticks. Although
the average size used for construction of a dam is four to twelve
inches (10 to 30 cm) across the stump, use of trees up to 150 feet
(45 m) tall and five feet(115 m) across have been recorded. As the
tree snaps, the beaver runs! Very large trees are not moved but the
bark is stripped off and eaten. Smaller trees are cut into movable
pieces, dragged into the water and through their canals, and finally
used for repairing dams and lodges. This work is done mainly in
autumn.
The den is used as a food cache, rearing area and general home.
Dens are for two types depending on water level fluctuations. Some
are simply dug into the stream bank and others are lodges constructed
of sticks and mud.
Where streams are too large or swift to dam but provide ample
water throughout the year, the beavers may burrow into a bank. These
may have several tunnel exits with at least one above high water mark
and another below low water mark. The den itself is a large chamber
averaging two feet wide by three feet long by three feet high (60 cm
by 90 cm by 90 cm).
Stick lodges are the homes for most beavers in Alaska. These
lodges never look alike, but they have two things in common: (1) the
bank dens have one chamber-like room, (2) at least one tunnel exit is
in deep water so it will be free of winter ice. This also provides
quick and easy access for food gathering and emer-gency escape from
predators. Each year beavers will add materials to the lodge whether
or not repairs are necessary. The same lodge is used by a beaver
family year after year so some can be quite large. It is the family's
home year-round.
After mating (which takes place in January or February) the female
prepares for a new litter. One to six kits are born in late April to
June. Their eyes are open at birth and they are covered with soft
fur. They can swim immediately. The young beavers live with their
parents until they are two years old. Then they leave to find their
own homes.
FOOD HABITS AND PREDATORS: Life in a beaver colony depends largely
on food supply. Beavers eat not only tree bark, but also aquatic
plants of all kinds, roots and grasses. As they exhaust the food
supply in the area, the beavers must roam farther from their homes.
This increases the danger from predators. When an area is cleared of
food, the family migrates to a new home. In Alaska wolves, lynx,
wolverine, bears and of course humans are important predators of
beavers.
ECOLOGY AND ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE: As beavers cut down small trees
and clear away brush, they provide places that are ideal food patches
for some animals. Waterfowl might use these spots as feeding and
nesting grounds, and ponds created by beavers often serve as fish
habitat. Occasionally beaver dams may block streams to migrating
anadromous fish like salmon, and at times road culverts may be
blocked or other human developments flooded by this industrious
animal.
In the past beaver pelts were so important they were used as a
trade medium in place of money. Between 1853 and 1877, the Hudson Bay
Company sold almost three million beaver pelts to England. In Alaska
today, trappers still take the furs. They are highly-prized for cold
weather coats and hats.
Peter Shepherd
1978
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the
MUSKRAT
in Alaska
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Alaska Department of Fish and Game
Wildlife Notebook Series
THE MUSKRAT (Ondotra zibethica)
occurs throughout most of Alaska's mainland except some islands of
southeastern Alaska, the Alaska Peninsula west of Ugashik Lakes and
the Arctic Slope north of the Brooks Range. The highest populations
of muskrat are in the broad floodplains and deltas of the major
rivers and in marshy areas dotted with small lakes.
Muskrats are one of Alaska's most visible fur-bearers and rank
first in numbers of animals harvested in Alaska and among the top
five in value. Four-fifths of the muskrats harvested in Alaska are
taken in five areas: the Yukon Flats surrounding Fort Yukon, Minto
Flats, Tetlin Lakes, the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta and the
Selawik-Kobuk-Noatak area. Muskrats are common in ponds and lakes
along the road systems in the Southcentral and interior parts of
Alaska.
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS: Often mistaken at first glance for the
beaver, the muskrat's small size--only two to four pounds--and its
long, scaly rat-like tail are the most immediate identification
marks. They are 10 to 14 inches in length, excluding their 8- to
11-inch tails. Their coats consist of soft, dense under-fur and long,
coarse, shining guard hairs which produce the dominant color of the
upper parts. Coloration ranges from a medium silvery brown to dark
brown with a lighter belly. The feet and tail are dark brown or
black. In open, swampy areas muskrats construct houses of vegetation
piled into mounds two to three feet above the surface of the water
and five to six feet in diameter. They also tunnel into earth banks.
Their nests are well above high water and have tunnels exiting
underwater below the lowest freezing level. Muskrats construct slides
and make fairly well-defined channels through vegetation along banks
of streams and ponds.
LIFE HISTORY: Muskrats have both a high reproductive and
population turnover rate. Mature females usually have two litters per
year and annually give birth to 15 young, or seven to eight per
litter.
Mating begins as soon as there is open water in the spring; in
interior Alaska this date may range from late April to mid-May and
the young resulting from this first mating are born in early to
mid-June. Females mate again three to five days after the birth of
the first litter. Their second litter is born about 25 days later.
Thus there are two peaks in breeding activity separated by about 30
days.
Evidence indicates that male muskrats remain at the same den with
the female for several weeks. The young are weaned at about one month
of age, but may stay with the parents for a while longer. Second
litters often over-winter in the same den with their parents.
Muskrats' sexual maturity is reached at about nine to ten months of
age.
FOOD HABITS: Muskrats are basically herbivorous and feed
mainly on
aquatic plants such as the roots and stems of cattails, lilies,
sedges and grass. They may occasionally eat some animal life such as
mussels, shrimp and small fish. Vegetation is collected and stored
during the summer for winter use. Throughout the winter muskrats
remained below the ice for great periods of time eating this stored
food and submerged vegetation. They extend their feeding areas by
constructing "pushups" which are piles of vegetation deposited on the
surface of the ice over an opening. Muskrats bring vegetation to
these pushups and eat it there. Continual use keeps the pushups free
of ice.
As the ice increases in thickness during the winter, less and less
area is available for foraging. Muskrats are forced to leave shallow
ponds or spend their time in deeper ponds to search for food. Deep
ponds and channels often have less aquatic vegetation than shallower
ones, thus they can support fewer muskrats. As muskrats compete for
deeper areas, food supplies are depleted rapidly. This may result in
exhaustion of food supplies and consequent fighting, starvation or
emigration of the muskrats. There are seldom any unoccupied living
spaces available and the emigrants may freeze, starve or are killed
by predators.
ECONOMIC USE: The open season for harvesting muskrats in
most of Alaska begins around November 1 and closes between the end of May
and
the 10th of June, though practically all muskrats are taken in the
last month of the season. The fall and winter season was initiated to
encourage the harvest of muskrats before they were lost to "winter
kill," but there is little trapping then. Eighty percent of the
muskrats harvested in Alaska are taken with a .22-caliber rifle. A
small amount of trapping (which is far more time-consuming than
shooting) takes place in the spring before ice breakup. Only a small
proportion of the total muskrat habitat is hunted or trapped.
Transportation during the open season is almost entirely by boat, and
only the larger streams, ponds and lakes that can be reached by short
portages are hunted. Unhunted areas act as natural reservoirs of
muskrat populations which serve to repopulate heavily harvested
areas. Muskrat fur is beautiful and durable and the meat of muskrats
is very tasty and very usable as human food.
OBSERVATION: During the summer, muskrats may be observed going
about their daily activities in just about every roadside pond and
slough where there is suitable vegetation as a food source. Often the
casual observer will hear a big splash and see something swimming
around in the water, giving the impression that the pond is inhabited
by large fish which are jumping and surfacing. Indeed, sometimes
there are large pike in the grassy sloughs feeding on an occasional
muskrat! If the viewer sits quietly by the edge of the pond or
slough, the resident muskrats will soon go about their business,
providing hours of entertainment.
Jean Ernest
1978
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the
HARE
in Alaska
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Alaska Department of Fish and Game
Wildlife Notebook Series
THERE ARE TWO SPECIES of hares in Alaska, both of which turn white
in the winter. THE
SNOWSHOE, or varying
hare (Lepus americanus) is the most common and widespread of
these. It is distributed over the state except for the lower
Kuskokwim Delta, the Alaska Peninsula and the area north of the
Brooks Range. It is sparsely distributed along the Southeastern
mainland except for major river deltas. THE
TUNDRA, or arctic, hare (Lepus 0thus) populates much of
the western coast of Alaska, including the Alaska Peninsula, but has
a spotty distribution along the arctic coast and the north slope of
the Brooks Range.
Hares are often called "rabbits" and both are members of
the
family Leporidae. However, hares are born fully furred and with eyes
open, while newborn rabbits are blind and hairless. Newborn hares are
soon able to hop around and leave the nest, but the helpless baby
rabbits do not even open their eyes for seven to 10 days.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: Snowshoe hares are somewhat larger
than a
cottontail rabbit (Genus Sylvila-gus). They average around 18 to 20
inches in total length and weigh three to four pounds. In summer the
coat is yellowish to grayish brown with white underparts, and the
tail is brown on top. This coat is shed and replaced by white pelage
in winter, but the hairs are dusky at the base and the underfur is
gray. The ears are dark at the tips. The large hind feet are
well-furred, adapting these animals for the deep snows of the boreal
forests--hence the name "snowshoe."
The arctic hare is larger 22 to 28 inches in length and weighs six
to 12 pounds. The winter coat of this large hare is long and the fur
is white to the base. Edges of the ears are blackish. In summer the
coat is grayish brown above and white below, with a whitish base to
the hairs. The tail is entirely white.
LIFE HISTORY: Snowshoe hares breed at about one year of age, and
have two to three litters per year. The gestation period is 36 to 37
days. First litters are born around the middle of May in Interior
Alaska, and average about four leverets (young hares). The second
litter, in years of increasing abundance, often averages six young,
and occasionally there is a third litter. Females breed immediately
after the birth of a litter.
The leverets are born in an unlined depression or "form." They
weigh about two ounces at birth and can walk by the time their fur is
dry. In a day or two they are wandering about the nest, and in less
than two weeks will be eating green vegetation. They nurse for about
a month. The color pattern of the young snowshoe is similar to the
summer pattern of adults.
Breeding habits of the arctic hare are similar, but the
reproductive season usually begins later and there is probably only
one litter per year. The leverets are darker than the adults, with a
black tinge to their fur.
HABITS: Snowshoe hares are found in mixed spruce forests, wooded
swamps and brushy areas. They feed on a wide variety of plant
material--grasses, buds, twigs and leaves in the summer and spruce
twigs and needles, bark and buds of hardwood such as aspen and willow
in the winter. The arctic hare is generally found on windswept rocky
slopes and upland tundra, often in groups. These big hares usually
avoid low-lands and wooded areas. They feed on willow shoots and
various dwarf arctic plants.
Hares are most active at dusk and dawn. They do not dig burrows or
build nests, but use natural shelters and depressions and-rest under
branches or bushes. The snowshoe hare travels about on
well-established trails or runways which become deeply worn in the
snow or forest floor. It is interesting that the winter trails
through the deep snow follow the summer pathways.
Populations of snowshoe hares are subject to cycles of high
abundance and scarcity. The population in an area will build up over
a period of years to a peak of abundance, followed by a sudden
decline to a very low level. During periods of peak abundance there
are as many as 600 animals per square mile of range. The exact cause
or causes for the decline are unknown; some possibilities are shock
disease due to stress, disease, parasites or a combination of these.
ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE: Snowshoe hares are one of the more important
food items of northern furbearers, particularly lynx. They are often
an important source of food for Alaskans. The arctic hare is also
important as a source of food and fur.
In times of great abundance the snowshoes may kill brush
by
overbrowsing. In "high" years they may compete with big game animals
such as moose for forage.
Both species of hares offer a great deal of recreation for the
small game hunter, especially in years of abundance. The arctic hare
provides an unusual trophy and a considerable amount of meat. The
snowshoe is available to more hunters, and can be taken near highway
systems and in such disturbed areas as mine tailing piles. Hares are
best hunted with a shotgun and birdshot, or .22-caliber rifle or
handgun. Early snowfalls will often catch the snowshoe hare still in
its summer coat, making it vulnerable to the hunter. The meat is
quite tasty.
Hunters should be alert for signs of tularemia, a bacterial
disease found in hares and rodents throughout the world. Such signs
include general sluggishness and spots on the liver and spleen.
Normal sanitary precautions should be taken when handling hares and
rubber gloves used when cleaning and dressing them. The meat should
be cooked thoroughly.
Jeannette R. Ernest
1978
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the
PORCUPINE
in Alaska
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Alaska Department of Fish and Game
Wildlife Notebook Series
THE PORCUPINE (Erethizon
dorsatum),
commonly known as "porky," "hedgehog" or "quill pig," is second in
size only to the beaver among the rodents of Alaska. Fossilized
remains of porky and his im-mediate ancestors indicate that he has
been a part of the North American fauna since the late Cenozoic era,
or about 20 to 30 million years.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: This stout, short-legged animal is 25 to 31
inches long and, except for the foot pads and nose, is covered with
hair and quills of varying length. The hair on the belly is sparse.
The color varies from black to brown. The tips of the long guard
hairs are lighter and give the coat hues of yel-low or white. The
tail is short and thick and heavily covered with quills. The average
weight of an adult porcupine varies between 15 and 18 pounds, but
certain individuals will weigh up to 25 pounds. The peculiar pelage
of the porcupine makes it unique among the mammals of the Western
Hemisphere. The quills are hollow, modified hairs which are well
barbed on as much as two-thirds of the outer end. Quills from
different parts of the body vary in length, flexibility, color, shaft
diameter and scaliness.
LIFE HISTORY: Breeding takes place in November, with a male
usually breeding with only one female. After a gestation period of
about 16 weeks, a single offspring is born. At birth, the young
porcupine weighs between one and two pounds and is about 10 inches
long.
Its eyes are open and its body is covered with long, grayish-black
hairs. Within a matter of hours, the devel-oping quills are dry and
serve as protection. The young porky is then capable of following the
female. The newly born porcupine nurses for a day or two and is then
able to eat vegetation. At the end of the first summer, the young
porcupine weighs about three to three and a half pounds and is about
18 inches long. Porcupines mature at three years of age and then
wander long distances from the home den.
Being an opportunist when it comes to shelter, the porcupine
utilizes any natural cavity which protects it from the elements. Such
shelters are rock or earth dens, cavities under deadfalls, roots,
stumps or hollow logs.
Ordinarily, the porcupine relies largely upon its sense of smell
for most of its activities. Hearing seems to be fairly good but its
sight has been reported as poor. Porcupines sometimes whine and utter
low grunts.
In general, the coat hairs and quills serve as protection against
inclement weather and predators. Depending upon the structure and
location on the body, they also function as touch receptors, sexual
stimulators and support for climbing.
Porcupines are normally nocturnal. However, they can be seen
slowly plodding about at any time of day. Tree climbing is generally
slow and awkward. As it methodically hitches its way up a tree, it
may use the stiff bristles on the undersurface of its tail as a
support. Thus, the lower tail bristles are often considerably worn by
the use of the tail for climbing and balancing.
FOOD: Spruce bark is a major part of the diet and may be
considered the porcupine's primary food in the winter. Birch also is
important. In the summer, a wide variety and abundance of green
leaves, buds and aquatic plants are eaten in preference to bark.
Porcupines are especially fond of the salty taste of perspira-tion on
axe handles, canoe paddles and shovels. They also feed upon discarded
antlers and the bones of dead animals and thus obtain phosphorus and
calcium.
PREDATION AND DEFENSE: Most carnivores would not pass up a good
meal of porcupine. However, an encounter between a young or
inexperienced predator or dog and a porcupine can be a very painful
exper-ience for the predator. Many unfortunate carnivores have
painfully starved to death with a mouthful of quills. Not only is the
skin surface of the animal involved, but the barbed quills also work
their way into the tissues. Predators usually can kill porcupines
only by flipping them on to their backs where the soft, quill-less
belly can be ripped open. The animal is then eaten, leaving an empty,
quill-covered sack. This method of killing porcupines is commonly
practiced by fishers and occasionally by lynx, wolves, coyotes and
wolverine.
When the animal is relaxed, the hair and quills lie flat and point
backward. When startled, the porcupine can draw up the skin of the
back to expose the quills. If touched on the hind quarters, it may
flip its tail, thus adding force to drive quills into its attacker.
Unlike other animals when faced with danger, the porcupine presents
its most formidable bristling back. Thus, the attacker faces a nearly
impenetrable forest of quills. Although a porcupine cannot throw its
quills, loose quills may be dislodged and this could give the
impres-sion that they are being thrown.
ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE: Because of its slow, ploddy movements, the
porcupine can be readily ap-proached and killed with a club. This
trait is detrimental to the individual animal but it has saved the
lives of many starving trappers and prospectors. This in itself is
reason enough to give the animal a certain amount of protection in
case such emergencies arise. Although the meat is not the most
palatable, it is edible and at times is a very welcome addition to
the diet.
Quills were utilized for decoration at one time by most of the
Indian tribes of Interior Alaska. They were dyed with locally
obtainable vegetable materials, flattened and then sewn into skin
clothing and other items.
Porcupines can be very injurious to mature forests and
reforestation projects because they feed on the bark and growing
layer during the winter and on the buds, leaves and tender branches
during the summer. When such problems occur, control may be
justified. However, needless killing or eradication should be
discour-aged. Porcupines are an integral part of the Alaskan faunal
scene and should not be thought of as pests merely because they are
not as economically important to man as some other species.
Dennis Bromley
Revised and reprinted 1978
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the
KING SALMON
in Alaska
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Alaska Department of Fish and Game
Wildlife Notebook Series
THE KING SALMON (Oncorhynchus
tshawytscha) is Alaska's state fish and is one of the most important
sport and commercial fish native to the Pacific coast of North
America. It is the largest of all Pacific salmon with weights of
individual fish commonly exceeding 30 pounds. A 126-pound king salmon
taken in a fish trap near Petersburg, Alaska in 1949 is the largest
on record.
The king salmon has numerous local names. In Washington and
Oregon, king salmon are called Chinook, while in British Columbia
they are called spring salmon. Other names are quinnat, tyee, tule
and blackmouth.
RANGE: In North America, king salmon range from the Monterey Bay
area of California to the Chukchi Sea area of Alaska. On the Asian
coast, king salmon occur from the Anadyr River area of Siberia
southward to Hokkaido, Japan.
In Alaska, it is abundant from the Southeastern panhandle to the
Yukon River. Major populations return to the Yukon, Kuskokwim,
Nushagak, Susitna, Kenai, Copper, Alsek, Taku and Stikine rivers.
Important runs also occur in many smaller streams.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: Adults are distinguished by the black
irregular spotting on the back and dorsal fins and on both lobes of
the caudal or tail fin. King salmon also have a black pigment along
the gum line which gives them the name "blackmouth" in some areas.
In the ocean, the king salmon is a robust, deep-bodied
fish with a bluish-green coloration on the back which fades to a silvery
color on
the sides and white on the belly. Colors of spawning king salmon in
fresh water range from red to copper to almost black, depending on
location and degree of maturation. Males are more deeply colored than
the females and also are distinguished by their "ridgeback" condition
and by their hooked nose or upper jaw. Juveniles in fresh water are
recognized by well-developed parr marks which are bisected by the
lateral line.
LIFE HISTORY: Like all species of Pacific salmon, king salmon are
anadromous. They hatch in fresh water, spend part of their life in
the ocean and then spawn in fresh water. All kings die after
spawning.
King salmon may become sexually mature from their second through
seventh year and as a result, fish in any spawning run may vary
greatly in size. For example, a mature three-year-old will probably
weigh less than four pounds, while a mature seven-year-old may exceed
50 pounds.
Females tend to be older than males at maturity. In many
spawning runs, males outnumber females in all but the six- and seven-year
age
groups. Small kings that mature after spending only one winter in the
ocean are commonly referred to as "jacks" and are usually males.
Alaska streams normally receive a single run of king salmon in the
period from May through July.
King salmon often make extensive freshwater spawning migrations to
reach their home streams in some of the larger river systems. Yukon
River spawners bound for the extreme headwaters in Yukon Territory,
Canada, will travel more than 2,000 river miles during a 60-day
period.
King salmon do not feed during the freshwater spawning migration
so their condition deteriorates gradually during the spawning run as
they utilize stored body materials for energy and for the development
of reproductive products.
Each female deposits from 3,000 to 14,000 eggs in several gravel
nests, or redds, which she excavates in relatively deep, moving
water. In Alaska, the eggs usually hatch in late winter or early
spring, depending on time of spawning and water temperature.
The newly hatched fish, called alevins, live in the gravel for
several weeks until they gradually absorb the food in the attached
yolk sac. These juveniles, called fry, wiggle up through the gravel
by early spring.
In Alaska, most juvenile king salmon remain in fresh water until
the following spring when they migrate to the ocean in their second
year of life. These seaward migrants are called smolts.
Juvenile kings in fresh water first feed on plankton, then later
eat insects. In the ocean, they eat a variety of organisms including
herring, pilchard, sandlance, squid and crustaceans. Salmon grow
rapidly in the ocean and often double their weight during a single
summer season.
COMMERCIAL FISHERY: Worldwide king salmon catches during 1967-71
averaged slightly more than 3.5 million fish per year. The United
States harvested approximately 52 per cent of these fish, while
Canada took 33 per cent; Japan 12 per cent and Russia 3 per cent.
Alaska's annual harvest during this period averaged about 639,000
fish per year, or about 21 per cent of the North American catch. The
majority of the Alaska catch is made in the Southeastern, Bristol Bay
and Arctic-Yukon-Kuskokwim areas. Fish taken commercially average
about 18 pounds. The majority of the catch is made with troll gear
and gill nets.
There is an excellent market for king salmon because of their
large size and excellent table qualities. Recent catches in Alaska
have had first wholesale pack values approaching $6 million and
brought fishermen nearly $4 million per year.
SUBSISTENCE AND SPORT FISHERY: Catches by Eskimo and Indian
subsistence fishermen in the Yukon and Kuskokwim rivers have averaged
about 60,000 king salmon annually in recent years. The king salmon is
perhaps the most highly prized sport fish in Alaska and is
extensively fished by anglers in the Southeastern and Cook Inlet
areas. Trolling with rigged herring is the favored method of angling
in salt water while lures and salmon eggs are used by freshwater
anglers. The sport fishing harvest of king salmon is over 26,000
annually with Cook Inlet and adjacent watersheds contributing over
half of the catch.
Ron Regnart
Stan Kubik
Revised and reprinted 1978
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Introduction
ANE Curriculum
Overview
Unit Overview
Athabascan
Art Sampler
OCR SCANNED MATERIAL
Athabascan
Winter Studies
